AP Psych 4.1-4.7 Match Game Terms

attitude

our evaluations or feelings towards a person, idea, or object that are typically positive or negative

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

social identity theory

the idea that ingroups consist of individuals who perceive themselves to be members of the same social category and experience pride through their group membership

cognitive load

the amount of a person's cognitive resources needed to carry out a particular cognitive task

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members.

discrimination

an act, policy, or system that maintains or creates an advantage for one group over another

implicit attitudes

attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people will get what they deserve

outgroup

a group that one does not belong to or identify with

outgroup homogeneity bias

the assumption that outgroup members are more similar to one another than ingroup members are to one another

ingroup

people with whom we share a common identity.

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

ethnocentrism

belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other-race effect

the greater difficulty people have in distinguishing between members of a different race compared to one's own race

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

conformation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

cognitive dissonance

an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs

person perception

the process of forming impressions of others

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

dispositional attributions

attributions that explain someone's behavior in terms of factors internal to the person, such as traits or preferences

situational attributions

explanations of people's behavior that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or other people's actions

explanatory style

a person's habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along three dimensions: internal/external, stable/unstable, and global/specific

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

internal locus of control

the perception that one controls one's own fate

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate.

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people

social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

social norms

expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

social influence

the effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

halo effect

tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client's behavior and statements

foot-in-the-door technique

persuasive technique involving making a small request before making a bigger one

door-in-the-face technique

persuasive technique involving making an unreasonably large request before making the small request we're hoping to have granted

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

obedience

a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

tight culture

social norms are rigid and clear, and members try to conform

loose culture

social norms are mixed and ambiguous, and conformity varies

individualism

a social theory favoring freedom of action for individuals over collective or state control.

collectivism

the practice or principle of giving a group priority over each individual in it

muliculturalism

the mixing of ethnic styles in daily life and in cultural works such as film, music, art, and literature.

group polarization

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

groupthink

the tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of some issue

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

social facilitation

improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

the bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychodynamic theory

Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

the rational part of personality that mediates between the id and superego, operating on the reality principle.

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

denial

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities

displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

rationalization

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions.

reaction formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings

regression

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

sublimation

a defense mechanism where a person unconsciously channels unacceptable impulses or desires (like aggression or sexual urges) into socially acceptable behaviors

projective tests

personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind

thematic apperception test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

preconsious

level of consciousness that is outside of awareness but contains feelings and memories that can easily be brougt to conscious awareness

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

humanistic psychology

an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

self actualization tendency

the striving to fulfill one's innate capacities and capabilities

social cognitive theory

Bandura's theory of personality that emphasizes both cognition and learning as sources of individual differences in personality

behavioral approach

in personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

reciprocal determinism

Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment

self

a person's distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

self-efficacy

an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

self-esteem

how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

traits

stable personality characteristics that causes individuals to behave in certain ways

personality inventory

a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits

MMPI

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders