DIVERSITY OF FORM & FUNCTION EXAM 1

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231 Terms

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Classification

-Similar features

-Animal/Vegetable/Mineral

-Micoscopes

--micoorganisms

-Kingdoms

--bacteria(prokaryotes)

--Animals, plants, fungi, single-celled eukaryotes

-Based on morphological features

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Genetics

-We resemble our relative bc we share many alleles(specific versions of genes)

--Most accurate measure of relatedness is how similar genomes are

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DNA

material of inheritance, common to all organisms

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rRNA

-First widely compared sequences

--Life depends on protein synthesis

--Ribosomes must function to make proteins

--Genes for ribosomal RNA evolve very slowly

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Prokaryotes

-Bacteria

-Archaea

--Neither have a nucleus

--Archaea are more closely related to eukaryotes

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Membrane enclosed nucleus is present in?

Eukarya

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Membrane enclosed nucleus is absent in?

Bacteria and Archaea

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Membrane enclosed organelles in eukarya?

Many

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Membrane enclosed organelles in Archaea?

Absent

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Membrane enclosed organelles in Bacteria?

Few

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Peptidoglycan in cell wall in Eukarya?

Absent

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Peptidoglycan in cell wall in Archaea?

Absent

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Peptidoglycan in cell wall in Bacteria?

Present

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Membrane lipids in Eukarya?

Ester-linked and unbranched

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membrane lipids in Archaea?

Ether-linked and branched

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Membrane lipids in Bacteria?

Ester linked and unbranched

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Ribosomes in Eukarya?

80S

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Ribosomes in Archaea and Baceria?

70S

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Initiator tRNA in eukarya?

Methionine

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Initiator tRNA in Archaea?

Methionine

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Initiator tRNA in Bacteria?

Formylmethionine

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Operons in Eukarya?

Rare

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Operons in Archaea and Bacteria?

Yes

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Plasmids in Eukarya?

Rare

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Plasmids in Archaea and Bacteria?

Yes

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Number of RNA polymerases in Eukarya?

Three

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Number of RNA polymerases in Archaea and Bacteria?

One

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Ribosomes sensitive to chloramphenicol and streptomycin in Eukarya and Araches?

No

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Ribosomes sensitive to chloramphenicol and streptomycin in Bacteria?

Yes

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Ribosomes sensitive to diphtheria toxin in Eukarya and Archaea?

Yes

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Ribosomes sensitive to diphtheria toxin in Bacteria?

No

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Gram Staining

Peptidoglycan in cell wall

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Gram positive

cell wall take sup violet dye, dense cell wall of peptidoglycan

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Gram negative

appears pink or red, very thin layer of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane.

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Coccus

sphere shape

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Bacillus

rod shape

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Helix

spiral shape

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Prokaryotes rely on what for movement of materials through cell?

Diffusion

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Quorum sensing

Triggers biofilm formation

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Prokaryotes reproduce by...

fission but can exchange genetic material

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How do prokaryotes exchange genetic material?

Horizontal or vertical transfer

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Horizontal gene transfers

complicates use of sequences to determine phylogenies

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Vertical gene transfers

Generation to generation as in multicellular organisms

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Metabolism/Environment in Prokaryotes

Oxygen is poisonous to some prokaryotes

--Anaerobes

Others require oxygen

--Obligate aerobes

Others can use either!

--Facultative anaerobes

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Cyanobacteria in nutrition

-Photosynthesis

--Photoautotrophs

---Converting Earth's atmosphere to aerobic in ancient past

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Photoheterotrophs

Harvest energy from light but rely on sugars made by other organisms

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Chemoheterotrops

feed on other animals

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Decomposers

break down dead bodies

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Nitrogen fixers

convert N2 from atmosphere to NH3

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Nitrifying bacteria

NH3--->NO2--->NO3

Available to plants for amino acid, nucleic acid synthesis

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Denitrifying

convert organic nitrogen to N2

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Beneficial prokaryotes in health and disease

rumen flora of cattle have cellulase- eat grass

--Lehume roots house nitrogen fixing bacteria

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Harmful pathogens of prokaryotes

Anthrax in sheep, cattle, and sometimes humans

--Agrobacterium in plants:crown galls

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Pathogens (prokaryotes)

-Only a tiny percentage of prokaryotes are pathogens

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How prokaryotes cause disease

Invade the body, evade immune system, multiple, produce toxins

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Endotoxins (host exposed when bacteria lyse)

Fever, vomiting, diarrhea

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Exotoxins (related by living bacteria)

Highly poisonous or fatal

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Features of eukaryotes

Organized nucleus

-Linear chromosomes, membrane-bound

Organelles

-Mitochondira

-Chloroplasts

-Digestive vacuoles

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Organelles

Membranes associated with specialized fucntions

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Vesicles

Move materials in and out of cell

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Cytoskeleton

Movement relies on this

-Predation

-Change shape

-Increased size

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Chromosomes and Sex (eukaryotes)

-Linear DNA molecules

-All have a sexual life

-Meiosis

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Eukaryotes include..

Plants, Animals, Fungi (ALL MULTI CELLULAR)

-Protists (usually single-celled)

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Multicellular organisms after cell division...

cells stay together

-provides opportunity for specialization

-Greater size

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Superkingdoms

Plants

Animals

Protists

-Single celled

-Diverse, polyphyletic

-Many niche

-Flagella, cilia, pseudopods

-can be complex

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Opisthokonts

Flagellum is posterior, single

-Animals (multicellular)

-Fungi(uni or multi)

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Choanoflagellates -- opisthokonts

Can be colonial

-first step toward multicellularity

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Fungi -- opisthokonts

cell wall of chitin

multicellular or uni

absorptive heterotrophy

-enzymes are secreted, break down food, absorbed

-can feed on living or dead organisms

-fungicides are toxic to animal cells

--major role in decomposition of dead organisms

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Fungi can be beneficial or harmful to other organisms

fungal infections in animals

-Plant pathogens: rusts, smuts

-Symbiosis: mycorrhizal dungi-allo trees to take up more minerals from sol

-Lichens: fungus + green algae

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Amboebozoans

use pseudopods for motility

-aquatic (fresh water)

-moves via pseudopods

-eats via phagocytosis

-Predator scavenger, or parasite

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Physarum -- amboebozoans

plasmodial slime mold

-terrestrial (forests)

-dispese, then aggregate to form fruiting bodies

-ingest by endocytosis

-move my cytoplasmic streaming

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Dictyostelium -- amboebozoans

cellular slime mold

-Amoeba-like single sells aggregate into slug when dry or starved

-are retained, form spores

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Rhizaria

unicellular, aquatic, long pseudopods, marine

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Foraminiferans -- rhizaria

external shells of calcium carbonate

-source of limestone

-psedudopods ensnare plankton

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Radiolarians -- rhizaria

glassy endoskeletons

-include some of the largest unicellular eukaryotes

-can have photosynthetic endosymbionts--dinoflagellates

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Archaeplastids

land plants (multicellular)

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Red algae -- archaeplastids

Marine

photosynthetic

chlorophyll a, phycoerythrin

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Green algae -- archaeplastids

chlorophyll a, b

-uni or multi cellular

--multicellular:

volvox - spheres of flagellated cells

sea lettuce - marine

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Stramenopiles

have unequal flagella

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Diatoms -- stramenopiles

silica in cell walls - upper and lower like a petri dish

-aquatic: fresh and salt

-photosynthetic : storage products oils

- Diatomaceous earth : filtration

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Brown algae - stramenopiles

can be multicellular

-sea palms, giant kelp

-phtosuntethic

-chlorophyll a,c + brown pigments

--source of emulsifiers of ice cream

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Alveolates

sacs under cell membrane

single celled

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paramecium --alveolates

ciliate

body covered with cilia - motility

fresh water

sex : equal exchange of nuclei

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dinoflagellates -- alveolates

red tides

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plasmodium -- alveolates

apicomplexans

parasite causing malaria

-life cycle in mosquitoes, human blood

--none functional chloroplasts

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Excavates

unicellular, often lacking mitochondria, named surface groove

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giardia --excavates

diplomonad

many flagella

lacks mitochondria

fresh water - parasite causing giardiasis

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Euglena -- excavates

a euglenid

-photosynthetic

-if in the dark, eats!

--anteriror flagellum

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Trypanosome -- excavates

kinetoplastid

-parasite causing sleeping sickness

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Endosymbiosis

Green algae, land plants: chloroplast (cp) from cyanobacterium endosymbiont

- Enclosed by 2 membranes: one from cyanobacterium, one from host cell

• Serial endosymbiosis: more than 2 membranes around cp

- Brown algae, diatoms, dinoflagellates: 4 membranes Cp derived from red algae endosymbiont:

inner 2 membranes from algal chloroplast next out from cell membrane of red alga outermost from host

- Euglenids: cp from green algal endosymbiont

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Viruses

composed of protein coated DNA or RNA encoding small number of proteins

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Are viruses alive?

Acellular

Mutate

Evolve

Interact with other organisms

Derived from living organisms

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Virus Classification

Based on nucleic acid type

-RNA or DNA

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Positive sense RNA viruses

genome is also template for translation

-rhinovirus, polio, plant diseases, zika

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Negative sense RNA viruses

Upon infection, viral encoded ran-dependent ran polymerase makes complimentary strand

-template for translation

-rabies, measles, mumps, ebola ---In terms of virus genomes, "negative sense" means that a single-stranded nucleic acid molecule has the opposite sequence to messenger RNA (mRNA) and so cannot be translated into protein until it has been copied

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RNA retrovirus

protein component includes reverse transcriptase-->DNA

-proviral DNA is integrated into host's genome

-Specific to vertebrate animals

-HIV

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DNA viruses

smallpox, herpes, bacteriphasge

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Ebolavirus

Genome encodes 7 genes

-L gene

Converts viral RNA into template for translation

-Virsus multiples-spreads in host and can infect new hosts

--Interferes with immune response, and disrupts vascular endothelial cells:hemorrhage

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What is an animal?

Multicellular

-Cells adhere after biotic division

-Cells communicate with each other

Heterotrophic: eat other organisms

Internal Digestion

Motility

-Muscles, nerves, skeletons

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Animal Diversity

Monophyletic

-common ancestor thought to resemble choanoflagellates

-Earliest and simplest animals are marine