Modern History: Exam 1

What is the feudal system? Why was it important in 15th century Europe?

• People in Europe lived following the feudal system

  • The top of the system were kings, where the kings would grant manors to manorial lords in exchange for loyalty and military service

    • These manors were large acreage

  • And peasants would work on these properties in exchange for a place to live and for protection

• The feudal system was suffering during this time

What is the Renaissance?

The Renaissance- period during the 15th century characterized by advancements in art, science, philosophy, etc.

• Occurred in and around Italy

• Artists were funded by '“patrons” who were typically the wealthy elite who funded authors, painters, & architects

What was the Ottoman Empire? Describe its importance in global trade.

An Islamic empire that controlled much of the Middle East

The Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople and used it to conquer the rest of the Middle East, cutting off trade with the Europeans

• This opens the door for Spain & Portugal and forces the Europeans to look to the West

What is a caravel?

Small, fast around 30 boats that allowed people to explore coastlines and travel across the Atlantic Ocean

What is Elmina? What is its significance for Portugal?

It is a trading port, now in modern day Ghana, where trading gold was prominent

• Portugal wanted China and India

• Contacted West Africans and realized they could not conquer them militarily and instead focused on establishing a trading port at Elmina

  • Elmina is now modern day Ghana

  • Here, they traded gold

 

What is Hispaniola?

Island discovered by Columbus during his voyages that consists of Haiti and Dominican Republic

During the Atlantic World (1492-1800), what region was the major source of sugar? How did this influence trade?

• The Caribbean was a major source for sugar and took majority of the enslaved Africans

  • Sugar drove the entire Atlantic slave trade!

What is Reconquista? What is its significance in colonization?

• Reconquista- Ferdinand and Isabella wanted to conquer Granada and other Muslim parts of Iberia, which eventually lead to the modern nation state of Spain

  • They wanted to unify Spain under a single Christian crown, meaning they had to expel Muslim leaders in Granada

  • Once Spain becomes unified, it becomes the major colonizer of South America and the Caribbean

• Portugal remained independent

What are the two groups of the first people in the Americas?

• One group came from East Asia and the other group from Northeastern Siberia

  • This happened around 36,000 years ago

  • These two groups merged around 14,000 years ago and came to the Americas along the Bering Strait

    • They came here not only by foot but by boats

What two cities dominated the global economy before the 15th century and why?

• Before the 15th century, Venice and Genoa dominated the global economy

  • They had direct access to the Mediterranean and Adriatic Sea for trade

Describe the state of the Songhai empire, Mali empire, Benin empire, and the Kingdom of Kongo in the 15th century.

• Songhai empire- controlled trans-Saharan trade routes

  • Traded slaves and gold for salt and luxury goods

    • Slavery already existed in Africa before the Europeans arrived

• Mali empire- declining due to internal political disputes

• Benin empire- modern-day Nigeria and produced incredible pieces of art

  • Many bronze pieces

• The Kingdom of Kongo- located at the Congo river to dominate local trade

What did Portugal want from the Africans in the beginnings of the Atlantic Slave Trade?

• When the Portuguese began using the slave markets, which already existed in Africa

• Portuguese wanted enslaved Africans to work sugar plantations in the Canary Islands

• Once the Europeans began colonizing the Caribbean, slave trade significantly changed

• King of Kongo, Afonso I, describes the changes in his territory in a letter written to the king of Portugal

  • He was not okay with the actions of the European merchants

Briefly describe the 4 voyages of Christopher Columbus.

• 1st voyage (1492)- landed in Haiti (island of Hispaniola), traveled across the Bahamas, founded the first settlement called La Navidad, incorrectly believed he was in the East Indies

• 2nd voyage (1493-1496)- wanted to conquer native populations; La Navidad was destroyed upon his return; many of his men were ill

• 3rd voyage (1498-1500)- sailed around Trinidad, Venezuela, returned to Hispaniola, the settlers rebelled against his two brothers' authority, an investigator finds that Columbus has been torturing the natives and brought back to Spain as a prisoners

• 4th voyage (1502-1504)- Columbus was reinstated as voyager; he was stranded on Jamaica after his ships fell apart

What is the encomienda system?

Involves the governor of a region granting elite men an encomienda (land) where natives work the land and give tribute to the elites

Who was the main central power during Ovando’s conquest?

The Aztec Empire

Where did the Aztec Empire originate and expand? What were some of their key features?

• They originated somewhere from North America and eventually spread throughout most Mexico in the 1400s

• They had an advanced society that included…

  • Compulsory education for elite children, irrigation system, huge buildings, clean streets, established legal system

How did the Aztec empire establish rule? What were their religious attitudes?

• During this time the Aztec empire, dealt with problems of its own…

  • They ruled by fear and force which created lots of enemies

  • They had religious pessimism

  • Increase participation in human sacrifice

Describe the events that led to the fall of the Aztec Empire.

• Tenochtitlan- current day Mexico city

  • Hernan Cortes was sent from Cuba to conquer the city

  • He met people that gave him intelligence about the empire and region

  • He entered the city with thousands of people for conquest

• Moctezuma (Aztec leader) meet with Hernan Cortes upon his arrival into the city and gave him many gifts

  • This was a way for Moctezuma to show off his strength and power, but Cortes that Moctezuma was surrendering the city to him

• Cortes and Narvaez's army begins to fight

  • Cortes wins the fight and accumulates people from Narvaez's army to enlarge his force

• Cortes' army creates a siege war where he blocks the city from having access to external resources

  • Moctezuma eventually dies and assumes control of the city and establishes the encomienda system throughout

Describe the significance of Francisco Pizzaro in the context of the Incan empire.

• Pizzaro established a first Spanish settlement in Peru

  • This was one of the first encounters between the Spanish and the Inca

• Cajamarca Massacre- Pizzaro created an ambush in the town square which injured many Incan people and killed the Incan leader

  • Pizzaro massacred many people in what it is supposed to be a peaceful negotiation

• Manco rebellion- the new Incan king, Manco, rebelled against Pizzaro's army after the Spanish conquered the Incan empire

  • Manco's army regained Cusco (Incan city), but lost it again

  • After, Incan warriors maintained resistance to Spanish rule for the next 36 years in the woods

• Pizzaro's was assassinated over conflict of demarcating boundaries

Where was the Incan empire located?

The Inca Empire took up primarily the west coast of South America

What significance did silver have in the growth of the Spanish empire?

• The Spanish empire hits its peak in the 17th century

• After conquering the Incas, the Spanish established a mining ground at Potosi in Bolivia

  • Potosi had lots of silver and other minerals, like zinc

What were the “New Laws” of 1542?

• Between 1492-1500, Spain allowed slavery of Native people

  • Many natives died from being overworked

• The "New Laws" of 1542…

  • Closed loopholes from earlier

  • Freed currently enslaved Native Americans

    • Did not apply to black slaves

  • Mandated only viceroys to establish new encomiendas

What is the significance of Bartoleme de Las Casas in the context of native slavery?

• Wrote a book that documented the mistreatment of Natives in the Indies

  • Played a major role in ending native slavery

  • In the book, he exaggerated some events

• Before he became a priest, he participated in slave raids and had helped spread the encomienda system

Why did original conquistadors become frustrated with the encomienda system?

Initially, those who participated in conquests received the best encomiendas

Overtime, as Spanish colonies matured, the original conquistadors were upset about their treatment by newly arrived royal officials who were giving encomiendas to their family and relatives who did not work as hard as them

What role did disease have on the native population in South America?

• 50%-90% of the South American population died

• The mass depopulation of South America was one of the most important event in the 16th century!

• The natives had not been exposed to the diseases that the Europeans spread which contributed to many fatalities

  • Smallpox wiped out the Taino people, and greatly depopulated the Mayans and Aztecs

How did the Spanish manage to conquer an entire continent?

1. The spread of disease

2. Groups often succeeded due to sheer timing

   • Cortes and other men launched their conquest at a time that was advantageous for them to do so

3. Political alliances with Native peoples

• Spaniards benefited greatly from alliances they had with native people

  • They took advantage of the natives civilizations

What is the Great Schism? What was the result?

• Catholic Church split into the Western and Eastern Churches called the Great Schism

  • Marked by growing political divide

  • Catholic Church maintained control over Western Europe

  • Catholic Church brought some unity and structure across Europe

What is the Treaty of Tordesillas?

• Treaty of Tordesillas- there was much land to be conquered in the West and Spain claimed this land for themselves

  • Portugal was unhappy about this

  • Pope Alexander issued this treaty which gave Spain all of the Western Hemisphere to colonize and gave Portugal everything east of the Atlantic (Africa and some parts of Asia)

Describe the origins of the Protestant Reformation, and how did indulgences play a role?

• The Reformation took place in the Catholic Church

• Stems from wanting to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica

  • A church that was thought to be built on the burial ground of St. Peter

• In the 1300s, the Catholic Church endured another split which caused the Basilica to fall apart

• The Pope wanted to rebuild the property, but took a long time to be completed

• Pope Leo X was frustrated over the construction over St. Peter's Basilica

  • Anyone that funded rebuilding the church were believed to be given indulgences to shorten someone's time in purgatory

Describe Martin Luther’s role in the development of the German Reformation. How did the pope respond? What was the end result?

• After reading religious works, Luther thinks that the Catholic church began to misunderstood the principles of their faith

  • Luther complained about the sale of indulgences through the Ninety-five theses

  • He further claims this is heretical and that the Pope is also at fault

• He began new ideas of faith and religion to his students and to those across Germany

  • He received some support during his efforts

• The Pope excommunicated Luther and banned the 95 Theses

• The Roman empire did not support Luther and wanted him arrested

• Culminates into the Peasants Revolt (1525) where people revolted against local authorities

  • Taxes were increased upon peasants and feudal lords in Germany cut off access to common lands which surged anger

• Luther eventually organized his own Lutheran Church

Describe Ulrich Zwingli’s role in the development of the Swiss Reformation. How did the Swiss government react? What was the end result?

• Served as a priest in Zurich

• Began speaking out against certain Catholic ideas that had no scriptural basis and wanted reform

• He distributed sausages during Lent (a time where people typically give up meat) which sparked controversy

  • Mentions that the Bible mentions nothing about Lent and questions why we should practice it

• Started a reformation movement as he gains more and more followers

  • Wanted to establish Protestant churches

• Swiss government banned his preachings, calling them heretical

• A Zurich based army protected Zwingli which fell into conflict with other armies that were against Zwingli

  • Catholic forces eventually win the battle, killing Zwingli in the process

Describe Jean Calvin’s role in the development of the Reformation. What were the Institutes of the Christian Religion?

• Born in France and did not come from means like Zwingli and Luther

• Began to follow Nicholas Cobb (a person who also called for reforms in the Catholic Church)

• Calvin published a book called the Institutes of the Christian Religion

  • Established principles of what later became Calvinism

• By the 1550s, Calvin attracted many followers and hoped to spread the reformation in France

Describe Henry VIII’s interactions with the Catholic Church during the Reformation period.

• Did not have an interest in marrying Catherine (child of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain)

  • Wanted to leave marriage because she was unable to give him a male heir

• Henry wanted to break from the Catholic Church entirely because the Pope did not want to annul the marriage

• Parliament stated that Henry is the head of the Church of England and executed anyone who disagreed with this

Describe the Anglican Church.

• The Anglican Church functioned a lot like the Catholic Church and Henry VIII had complete control over the Church

  • This means that the state and church became one thing

Describe the Lutheran Church.

• The Lutheran Church was most prominent in Germany

  • Local churches had a lot of autonomy as long as the followed Book of Concord

  • Services were carried out in local languages, not Latin

  • Most similar to the Catholic church than other Protestant groups

  • The nature of salvation and how someone obtains it was the most different concept between the Lutheran and Catholic Church

Describe the Reformed/Presbyterian Church.

• The Reformed/Presbyterian Church is based on the teachings of Calvin and prominent in Switzerland, France, Scotland, and part s of Germany

  • Emphasizes that everything is predestined and that you could not work your way to change this fate

  • Services were very different from Catholic services

    • Were built around sermons

    • There was no Pope, but rather committees

    • Everyday people had more of a say of what was going on during these committees

What are shared ideas that Protestants have?

• Works do not gain entrance into heaven

• Grace is a free gift from Jesus' sacrifice and the only means of salvation

• Believe that all truth is revealed in the Bible (scripture)

  • Anything that is not based in scripture is made up and illegitimate

    • There is no pope, purgatory, and saints in the Bible

What are the gospels? Give examples of at least 3 and what they were written for.

• Gospels- books about Jesus himself

  • One of them is Matthew

    • Originally believed to be written for a congregation losing its faith amid Roman persecution

  • Another is Mark

    • The oldest gospel

    • Possibly written for Greek Christians living in Jerusalem

  • Luke

    • Written after fall of Jerusalem

  • John

    • Focused more on the nature of Christ, especially the idea that he is coequal with God

What were the Pauline letters? List at least 2 and describe what they were about.

• Letters written by St. Paul

  • These letters predate the Gospels, so they were likely the oldest Christian text

• Written to various churches in the gentile diaspora of the 1st century Christian church

• The Pauline letters were written for different reasons…

  • Galatians- this letter is a defense for spreading Christianity to the gentiles

    • Explains what people should and should not believe

    • Sets the stage for Protestants that later believed in predestination

      • Paul claims he was predestined to lead this movement

  • Thessalonians- praises a Church that was doing well adopting Jewish traditions and infusing Christian ideas

    • Explains dislike for homosexuality, and explains that Jesus' return is imminent

  • Corinthians- solves schisms (disagreements) in a congregation

    • Explains how the human body will be resurrected after Jesus' return

      • This sparked much debate on death and heaven

Why is the Protestant Reformation so important?

• After the Protestant reformation, there is now 3 main Protestant Churches (Anglican, Lutheran, Presbyterian)

• These Protestant groups mined the New Testament for specific scriptures that help establish the framework for new sects and churches

What is the Thirty Year’s War?

• Thirty Year's War- several Catholic states went into war with Protestant states that resulted in a war that devastated Europe

  • Around 8 million people died in this war!

  • Occurred during a time where Protestantism was spreading across Europe, and tensions began to escalate

What is the Peace of Westphalia?

• Peace of Westphalia- signed at the end of the Thirty Year's War where countries agreed that European countries should not be involved in internal countries disputes

  • Also established where leaders of individual countries would choose between Catholicism, Calvinism and Lutherism in their state

What happened when Protestantism was spreading across Europe, specifically in France? What was signed during this time to ease tensions?

The Protestant faith did flourish in France, which brought persistent violence

• King Henry signed the Edict of Nantes which stated that France will remain a Catholic state and that Calvinism would be at least tolerated in France

  • Helped to reduce violence during this time

• King Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes which brought everything back to square one

  • Many people die due to religious wars during this period!

How were the Puritans similar to the Catholics? What were some beliefs that all Puritans shared?

The Puritans also practice non-scriptural practices, like the Catholics

• ALL Puritans believed in….

  • Returning to the ideas of the primitive Church

    • Only observing things that were mentioned in scripture

  • The Church should always be above the state

  • Moral and national reform

  • Promoted more personal Christianity

    • Focused on a more inward devotion (having a personal relationship with God)

What is the idea of separatism?

• Robert Browne introduced the idea of separatism

• Separatism- impossible to salvage the Anglican Church and we had to sever ties completely with the state Church

How did Puritanism begin to merge with politics?

• Puritanism begins to merge with politics

  • Including the House of Commons, House of Lords, and the Monarchy

  • The House of Commons was popularly-elected and contained more Puritans more than any other bodies of government

  • The House of Lords consisted of noblemen who typically inherited their positions and was more of an Anglican body

  • The Monarchy who was the most powerful person in the government and had the right to call Parliaments into session

Why was their conflict between King Charles and Parliament in the context of the English Civil War?

• King Charles refused to call Parliament into session because Parliament would question his authority

  • Parliament passed a list of grievances against his authority

  • The King did not agree with this and later resulted in a civil war

  • There was a war between Parliament's army and King Charles army

Describe the New Model Army and its origins in context of the English Civil War. What did the New Model Army do?

• Oliver Cromwell organized a New Model Army that was built upon merit and predominantly Puritan

  • They abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords

  • Established the Protectorate and took all the power of himself

• Cromwell eventually assumed military rule

  • The English people did not like his rule and after he died they immediately restored the monarchy

Who are the anabaptists?

• One of the original sectarian Protestant groups who debated over baptism

  • Believed that through baptism who earned your place in heaven and that adults should make this choice

• Catholics and some other Protestants hated Anabaptists

• Anabaptists began to flee from Europe in fear of persecution

What is the Schleitheim Confession?

A document that stated that baptism was only for adults

Why did George Fox found the Society of Friends (Quakers)? What is the “Inner Light”?

• Emerged from George Fox who had an awakening that God is found in found within individual humans themselves

  • The "Inner Light"- refers to that every person has a tiny idea of God within them

  • People who shared this idea of the "Inner Light", were called the Society of Friends or Quakers

What was the demeanor of the early Quakers vs. now?

• Early Quakers were very aggressive in their efforts to spread their faith

  • They would insult pastors and disrupt Puritan services

• James Nayler, a Puritan pretended to be Christ and was arrested by the Puritans

• George Fox realized that the Quakers had to calm down and dedicated more to pacificism and other calmer actions

What did Quakers did not believe in?

• Quakers did not believe in…

  • Honorary titles

    • This upset many elites

  • Refused to take oaths to anyone, but God

    • This involved even court proceedings

• Parliament began to take estates from wealthy Quakers who refused to take oath

Who were the Ranters?

• Believed that all Christians were freed by grace

• Pamphlets portrayed the Ranters as evil people who have no morals

What was the Northwest Passage and why did England want to find it?

• England was not an imperial power, like Spain during this time period

  • They wanted to find other ways other than colonization to better the country

• Looking to raise its reputation and national wealth, England was concerned with finding a new route to the East Indies (China, Philippines, etc.)

  • This included finding the Northwest Passage that connected the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

Where was the Roanoke colony and what happened to it?

Somewhere in modern-day South Carolina

• John White, an artist, upon returning to Roanoke with his family, did not know what happened to the colony that was now abandoned

  • They were either killed or assimilated into other native communities

What is the joint-stock model? Give examples.

Instead of the Crown funding colonial areas, they switched to the joint-stock model

• Joint-Stock Model-  where investors pooled capitals to fund high-risk, long voyages

• The East India Company & Plymouth were examples of joint-stock models

Where was the Jamestown colony located, and describe its growth over the years.

• Virginia Company was granted access to the areas immediately surrounding the Roanoke areas

• Jamestown colony was struggling to stay alive in the first 10 years

  • Famines

•  John Ralph married Pocahontas

• A turning point was the growing of tobacco which was very profitable in Virginia

  • Tobacco became a phenomenon during this time as it became widely popular

What was another term for the Pilgrims and what were there beliefs on the Anglican Church? Where were they located before moving to Plymouth?

• The Pilgrims were originally known as Brownists

  • They believed the Anglican Church was irredeemable (fully corrupt)

  • Spent some time in the Netherlands before moving to Plymouth

What is the Mayflower compact?

Mayflower compact- an agreement that everyone on the ship will respect the governing body they established at Plymouth

• There were not only Puritans (Brownists), but also separatists that boarded the ship

What was the Great Migration (1630-1640)?

• A group of Puritans wanted to leave the Church of England in 1630 which later became the Great Migration (1630-1640)

  • John Winthrop led this group of migrants

• Winthrop and others developed a major settlement called Boston

  • Other settlements like Dedham, Newbury, etc. were established afterwards

• There were small-scale sugar operations and played an indirect role in sugar plantation in the Caribbean

Describe some problems that were prominent in the early New England colonies.

• Sectarianism (identification with a particular relgioius group) & persecution were prominent

• The government did execute people who committed heresy

  • There were Quaker executions

• Religious differences led to new colonies

  • Rhode Island- became a refuge for sectarian groups that were exiled from Massachusetts

  • Connecticut- founded by people who didn't like the elites of Massachusetts

  • New Haven- founded by people who felt the magistrates in Massachusetts were not Puritanical enough

Describe key characteristics of Puritan life in New England

• Because Puritans believed in pre-destination, they were always concerned with their status with God

  • Good works would not get you into heaven; however being a good person would

  • There was a fear of hell

• They believed in supernatural events that occurred on earth

  • Salem Witch Trials

• Portents & signs seemed to have a spiritual aspect to then

  • Earthquakes, bad storms, seem to have a spiritual meaning

Where did Puritans meet for worship? Who were Tithingmen?

• Puritans met in meeting houses that were typically in the center of town

  • They did not meet in churches

  • Everyone was focused on the pulpit where the pastor would preach from

  • Sunday Sermons were lengthy

• Only full members of the church could take communion

• Puritan churches were overseen by elders

  • The pastor was considered an elder, as well as a teaching and ruling elders

  • There are also deacons who helped facilitate charitable a

  • Tithingmen- watched over church services and surveyed communities to ensure they were behaving as good Puritans

What was the General Court in Puritan government? What were the voting requirements? Why was Massachusetts considered a theocracy?

• General Court consisted of the executive, legislative, and supreme (judicial) court in one

• The Governor was elected annually

• Magistrates acted as advisors to the governors

• Deputies were elected by each town and served as civic organizers and advocated for the needs of specific regions

• Voting requirements: male and a full member of the church

  • These requirements ALSO applied to become a government official

  • Because of these rules Massachusetts was believed to be a theocracy

What is Mosaic law? Where was court held? Why did the Puritans execute few people?

• Mosaic law- law of Moses

  • Basis of Puritan legal system

• The Puritans did not execute many people likely due to the two-witness rule where 2 witness are needed to observe a crime to be charged for a crime

• Puritans held court only four times per year (quarterly courts)

  • Held in either churches or taverns

  • Magistrates were collect written testimonies from both parties involved

How did Puritan dominance end? What is declension?

• Younger generations were not interested in becoming part of the church as previous generations

• Declension- general weakening of the region's devoutness to the faith

  • Led them to pass the Half-way covenant where they allowed anyone part of society to take part in service and be baptized but could not do communion

• Salem Witch Trials also contributed to the decline of the Puritan rule