Biology - Units 6, 6.5, 7, 8, & 9 - Final Exam

What are the various ways an organism can reproduce?

-Asexual Reproduction

-Sexual Reproduction

What are the pros of asexual reproduction?

-Only needs one parent

-Quick & Efficient

What are the cons of asexual reproduction?

-No genetic variety

-Harder for species to change & adapt

What are the pros of sexual reproduction?

-Genetic diversity/variation

-Easier for adaptations, (natural selection)

What are the cons of sexual reproduction?

-Natural selection

-Finding a partner to reproduce with

-Time & energy required

What are the similarities between sexual and asexual reproduction?

-Produces new individuals of the same species

-Traits are determined by DNA

What are the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction?

Asexual:

-One parent

-Single celled organisms (fungi, some plants)

-Offspring are identical to parent

Sexual:

-Two parents

-Most animals & humans

-Offspring are genetically unique

Interphase

-Cells spend most of their time here

-Cell is growing & replicating DNA

-Cell is carrying out normal cell functions

-Includes Growth 1, Synthesis, & Growth 2

-Prepares for cell division

Growth 1

-Cell increases in size to prepare for division

-Cell organelles are duplicated

Synthesis

-Cell synthesizes copy of DNA and centrosomes

Growth 2

-Cell grows larger

-Synthesizes organelles and proteins

-Reorganizes its genetic material

How is the cell cycle regulated?

Regulated by regulatory proteins both inside and outside of the cell

How does cancer relate to the cell cycle?

Cancer is the result of rapid & uncontrolled cell division/growth

Asexual Reproduction

-The process of reproduction in some organisms that creates a clone

-Only one parent cell needed

-Daughter cell is genetically identical to parent cell (clone)

-Quick & Convenient

-Done by most plants and bacteria

Ex:

-Binary fission

-Budding

-Sporulation

-Regeneration

-Vegetative Propagation

Sexual Reproduction

-The process of reproduction in animals and humans where two organisms mix their DNA to create a genetically unique offspring

-Allows for natural selection

-Allows for genetic variety in a population

Clone

An organism or cell that is genetically identical to it's parent organism/cell

Daughter cells

New genetically identical cells that are the result of cell division

Sister chromatids

-Two identical chromatids of a chromosome

-ONLY considered a chromatid if it is attached to another

Centrioles

Bundles of proteins that help arrange the spindle fibers that move chromosomes during cell division

Spindle fibers

Protein structures which move the chromosomes during cell division

Cell cycle

Series of events that take place as a cell grows and divides to make two new identical cells (daughter cells)

Mitosis

-Method of cell division that can occur in eukaryotic cells

-Part of the cell cycle, alternating with interphase

-Allows for organisms to grow, develop, and replace old/dead cells

-Creates two genetically identical daughter cells

-Goal is to make sure each daughter cell gets a FULL set of identical chromosomes

Prophase

-DNA condenses into chromosomes in the nucleus, making the chromosomes visible

-Nuclear envelope starts to break down

-Centrioles start to move to opposite sides of the cell (poles)

-Two centrioles form a centrosome

-Spindle fibers are formed

Metaphase

-Chromosomes are free in the cytoplasm, since the nuclear envelope has dissolved

-Each centrosome has formed spindle fibers

-Chromosomes line up along the middle of cell (metaphase plate), attaching to the spindle by their centromeres

Anaphase

-Spindle fibers shorten, separating sister chromatids

-Pulled by centromeres to the cell poles

-Appear V-shaped as they are pulled

Telephase

-Chromosome start to uncoil at poles

-Uncoiling makes them longer & thinner

-Nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes

-Cytoplasm starts to divide, starting cytokinesis

Cytokinesis

-Completed once cytoplasm is fully divided

-Chromosomes are NOT visible anymore

-Resulting daughter cells are identical to each other & parent cell

-Daughter cells are now in interphase, and preparing for mitosis to happen again

Carcinogen

Substance that causes cancer

Cancer

The result of change in cells that lead to uncontrolled cell division

Malignant tumor

Tumors that cause cancer

Benign tumor

An abnormal mass of cells that remains at its original site in the body

(not my definition, we didn't learn this)

Binary Fission

-Form of asexual reproduction

-Organism divides in half

-Replicates DNA BEFORE division

-Bacteria & unicellular organisms

Budding

-Form of asexual reproduction

-Develops an outgrowth (detached)

-2 different sized cells that share the same IDENTICAL DNA

-Sponges, coral, jellyfish, yeast, hydra

Sporulation

-Form of asexual reproduction

-Produces its own spores

-Genetically identical to parent

-Travels via wind, water, etc.

-Fungi, algae, mold, & ferns

Regeneration

-Form of asexual reproduction

-Helps repair or grow lost body parts

-Some can grow new organisms from pieces

-Sea-star, sponges, M(?)anaria, lobsters, starfish, segmented worms

Vegetative Propagation

-Form of asexual reproduction

-Created from roots, stems, or leaves

-Tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, stems, runners

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death

What were the contributions of Miescher in relation to the discovery of DNA structure?

-First person to observe DNA

-Broke down nuclei of WBCs, finding a grey substance

-Substance had new chemical properties

-Called the substance "nuclein"

What were the contributions of Chargoff in relation to the discovery of DNA structure?

-Worked out that the total number of purines (A & G) is equal to the number of pyrimidines (T & C)

-Known as "Chargaff's rule"

DONT NEED TO KNOW PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES FOR C2 QUIZ, JUST KNOW THIS WHAT IS HE DID!!

What were the contributions of Levene in relation to the discovery of DNA structure?

-Discovered nucleotides were composed of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a base

-Put forward the model of DNA being formed of polynucleotide chains

What were the contributions of Franklin in relation to the discovery of DNA structure?

-Produced the first image of DNA using X-ray crystallography

-Watson & Crick obtained her image without her knowledge or consent

What were the contributions of Watson & Crick in relation to the discovery of DNA structure?

-Had been researching DNA's shape

-Realized DNA was a double helix with the help of Franklin's photograph

-Published a scientific paper about their discovery

What is the base pairing rule of DNA?

-Adenine pairs with Thymine (A=T)

-Cytosine pairs with Guanine (C=G)

What would be the complementary strand to the following?

ATTGCATATGCGATCA

TAACGTATACGCTAGT

What are the structural parts of a nucleotide?

-Deoxyribose sugar

-Phosphate group

-Nitrogenous base (A,T,C,G)

What is the structure of a DNA molecule?

-Double helix

-Sides are built from alternating deoxyribose sugar and phosphate groups (sugar-phosphate backbone)

-Middle is made from nitrogenous bases

What are the differences between:

-A strand of DNA

-A gene

-A chromosome

-Strand of DNA: Single long "strand" that contains basic building blocks of genetic info

-Gene: Segment of DNA that codes for a protein, thereby causing a genetic characteristic or trait

-Chromosome: Gene carrying things? idfk

What is the process of DNA replication?

-Helicase unzips DNA from histone proteins into two strands at the cell origin (replication fork) (not the same thing, but dont worry ab it)

-Primase "primes" DNA, creating a staring point for DNA polymerase

-DNA polymerase synthesizes new strands of DNA by adding their corresponding base pairs in 5' -> 3' direction

-Lipase joins the DNA together and fixes the gaps in between fragments (Okazaki fragments)

What is the function of the enzyme helicase in DNA replication?

-Unzips DNA from histone proteins, creating 2 strands

What is the function of the enzyme primase in DNA replication?

-Primes DNA so polymerase knows where to start

What is the function of the enzyme DNA polymerase in DNA replication?

-Synthesizes DNA by adding correct base pairings to nucleotides

What is the function of the enzyme ligase in DNA replication?

-Fills in gaps caused by lagging strands

Nucleic acid

CHOPN, if u dont know this, i cant help u bru

respectfully u need 2 lock in

Nucleotide

-Monomer of nucleic acid

-Made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

Chromosome

A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins. (not mine)

Gene

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait (not mine)

DNA

-Deoxyribonucleic Acid

-A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. (not mine)

RNA

-Ribonucleic acid

-Single-stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose

Helicase

Enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix (not mine)

Primase

Enzyme that primes for polymerase

DNA Polymerase

Enzyme that puts nucleotides together

Ligase

Enzyme that glues stuff

Semi-conservative model

Called semi-conservative because each resulting DNA double-helix has ONE strand from the original, and ONE new strand

What is the relationship between genes and proteins?

Genes are sections of DNA that code for protein

What is the central dogma?

Explains that DNA codes for RNA which codes for proteins

What are the similarities between DNA and RNA?

-Nucleic acid

-May contain adenine, cytosine, guanine

-Made from sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

-Made of nucleotides

What are the differences between DNA and RNA?

-Double vs single stranded

-Deoxyribose vs ribose sugar

-Thymine vs uracil

-Nucleus vs cytoplasm

What is the role of mRNA in protein synthesis?

Carries copies of DNA sequence out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm

What is the role of rRNA in protein synthesis?

-Makes up ribosomes

-Forms proteins from chains of amino acids using peptide bonds

What is the role of tRNA in protein synthesis?

-Carries amino acids to form protein chains to the ribosome

What is the process of transcription?

-Job is to make an mRNA copy from DNA original sequence

-RNA polymerase unwinds a small section of DNA

-Uses one side of the double helix as a template to make an mRNA copy

-Copies specific genes by finding polymer sequences at the beginning of each gene

Where does transcription occur?

In the nucleus

What enzymes are involved in transcription, and what are their functions?

-RNA polymerase

-Unwinds small section of DNA, using one side of double helix as template to make mRNA copy

What is the process of translation?

-mRNA message is turned into an amino acid chain

-Ribosome attaches at the start codon (AUG)

-Continues to move down the mRNA, bringing in tRNA molecules to create an amino acid chain

-Continues until stop codon is reached

-Amino acids bond together in a long string

-Bonded with peptide bonds, so chain is called a polypeptide chain

-Chain will fold into a protein to be used by the cell

Where does translation occur?

Ribosome

What enzymes are involved in translation, and what are their functions?

Ribosomes? i really dk im ngl sorry guys :(

What would be the resulting mRNA and sequence of amino acids from the follow DNA strand?

TACACCGGAGCGTTTATT

AUGUGGCCUCGUAAAUAA

Met-Trp-Pro-Arg-Lys-STOP

What would happen if a mistake was made during protein synthesis?

Mutation would occur, severity and consequences depending on the mistake made

What are the types of genetic mutation?

-Point: A SINGLE base is changed in one way or another

-Substitution: One or more bases are traded for another

-Insertion: One or more bases are inserted, creating a longer DNA strand

-Deletion: One or more bases are deleted, creating a shorter DNA strand

-Silent: No effect on the amino acid coded for

-Missense: Causes a codon to code for a different amino acid than the original one

-Frameshift: "reading frame" shifts forward or backwards, changing MANY amino acids

-Nonsense: Causes a stop codon that terminates translation too early, usually creates a non-functional protein

Insertion

Adding in one or more bases

Deletion

Removing one or more bases

Substitution

Swapping one or more bases for another base

Nonsense

Causes a stop codon that terminates translation too early, usually creates a non-functional protein

Missense

Causes a codon to code for a different amino acid than the original one

Frameshift

"reading frame" shifts forward or backwards, changing MANY amino acids

Transcription

The process of making an mRNA copy from a DNA template

Translation

The process of decoding/converting mRNA into amino acids

mRNA

messenger RNA; type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome

tRNA

transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome

rRNA

ribosomal RNA; type of RNA that makes up part of the ribosome

Genetic code

Section of DNA that codes for amino acids and thereby proteins

Codon

three-nucleotide sequence on messenger RNA that codes for a single amino acid

Anticodon

A sequence of three bases of a tRNA molecule that pairs with the complementary three-nucleotide codon of an mRNA molecule during protein synthesis.

Amino acid

Monomer of proteins

Mutation

Change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information

Point

Type of mutation regarding a single base

Silent

Mutation that has no effect

Translocation

A piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome

Inversion

A section of the chromosome gets flipped/reversed

what are u gonna get

100!!!!