AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

Memory

learning that persists over time

Recall

a memory measure: retrieve information ex. fill in the blanks

Recognition

a memory measure: identifying information ex. multiple choice

Relearning

a memory measure: speed of relearning, time and effort decrease with successive attempts

Encoding

information processing(computer): get info into the brain ex. by extracting meaning

Storage

information processing(computer): retain info

Retrieval

information processing(computer): get info back

Parallel Processing

- simultaneous and natural mode

- some unconscious processing

- it means we work on several aspects of a problem at once

Sensory Memory

immediate, brief

- Iconic - visual memory, split second, photographic memory

- Echoic (slightly better than iconic) - auditory memory, 3-4 seconds

Effortful Processing

- encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

- chunking (the process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units (chunks)

- mnemonics ex. BEDMAS

- hierarchies (systems where individuals or concepts are ranked one above another based on specific criteria)

- testing effect - consciously retrieving information enhances memory

Long-Term Memory

- the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

- storage for later retrieval

Short-Term Memory

- activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten

- encode it through rehearsal

Working Memory

- a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

- stage at which the central executive makes sense of input and linking it with long-term memory

- 7 +/- 2 pieces of information capacity

- automatic processing

Explicit Memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (declarative memory)

- effortful processing

- semantic facts (knowledge)

- episodic memory (experienced events)

Automatic Processing

- unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

- info that slips in without our conscious attention

Implicit Memory

- retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (non-declarative memory)

- automatic

- without conscious effort

- space, time, frequency

- motor, cognitive skills

Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Shallow Processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep Processing

encoding based on meaning = better retention

Semantic Memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

Episodic Memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

Hippocampus

- a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories (facts and events) for storage

- it's like a loading dock with save button

Flashbulb Memories

- clear and sustained memory of an emotionally significant event

- vivid memory of a specific event and where we were and contextual sensory details

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

increase in cell firing potential prompting release of neurotransmitters and more connections exist between neurons

Priming

external cues activate associations that help us retrieve memories; may occur without our awareness, as it does in priming

Mood-Congruent Memory

Returning to the same physical context or emotional state in which we formed a memory can help us retrieve it

Serial Position Effect

accounts for our tendency to recall best the last items and the first items in a list

Encoding Specificity Principle

the idea that cues and​ contexts specific to a particular​ memory will be most effective in​ helping us recall it​

Anterograde Amnesia

inability to form new memories (explicit) as a result of injury or illness

Retrograde Amnesia

inability to retrieve old memories as a result of injury or illness

Proactive Interference

older learning disrupts/interferes with recall/retrieving newer info ex. old locker combo disrupts memory of new locker combo

Retroactive Interference

newer learning/memories disrupt/interfere with recall/retrieval of older memories ex. old song with new lyrics you can't recall old lyrics

Reconsolidation

- repeatedly "replaying" memories may alter them, leading to the introduction of inaccuracies

- process when memories we retrieve, potentially after and store again differently

Misinformation Effect

- Misleading information distorts one's view of an event

- In experiments demonstrating the misinformation effect, people have formed false memories by incorporating misleading details—either after receiving wrong information after an event, or after repeatedly imagining and rehearsing something that never happened.​

Source Amnesia

- faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned

- when we reassemble a memory during retrieval, we may attribute it to the wrong source

Déjà Vu

- situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of earlier memory

- source amnesia may help explain déjà vu.​

- false memories feel like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the main gist of the event.​

Cognition

mental activities such as thinking, remembering, knowing and communication

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

the best example of a group (concept)

Creativity

- an ability to provide original/novel and valuable ideas

- Robert Sternberg 5 components of creativity: expertise, creative environment, venturesome, personality, imaginative thinking skills, intrinsic motivation

Convergent Thinking

the type of thinking that focuses on coming up with the single, well-established answer to a problem

Divergent Thinking

the process of creating multiple, unique ideas or solutions to a problem that you are trying to solve

Schemas

- our learned concepts and experiences of how we expect things to be

- influence how we perceive the world and can create perceptual sets

Metacognition

the ability to control and be aware of your own thoughts ex. realizing you know the answer to a question on the quiz even though you cannot think of the answer at that moment, which prompts you to decide you should return to it later with a fresh perspective

Intelligence

is a mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

General Intelligence

Charles Spearman proposed that we have one general intelligence (g). Through his work with factor analysis, he noted that those who score high in one area typically score higher than average in other areas.

Factor Analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related mental abilities

Savant Syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing​

Grit

- perseverance, resilience

- achievement is a result of intelligence, grit and practice

Emotional Intelligence

an aspect of social intelligence, is the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly;

tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood

Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory

the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc

Intelligence Test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores​

Achievement Test

- intended to reflect what you have learned​

- Exams covering what you have learned in a course

- ex. chapter or unit tests in your courses, final exams in college

Aptitude Test

- designed to predict what you can learn.​

- intended to predict your ability to learn a new skill

- ex. A college entrance exam, which seeks to predict your ability to do college work (SAT, ACT, etc.)

Mental Age

the level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age

Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

an aptitude test, is the most widely used intelligence test for adults

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

a standardized scale used to measure intellectual abilities

Standardization

establishes a basis for meaningful score comparisons by giving a test to a representative sample of future test-takers

Normal Curve

- the distribution of test scores often forms a normal (bell-shaped) curve around the central average

- represents data that clusters around a mean or average

Reliability

is the extent to which a test yields consistent results (on two halves of the test, or when people are retested)

Validity

is the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure

Content Validity

a test has content validity if it samples the pertinent behavior (as a driving test measures driving ability

Predictive Validity

a test has predictive validity if it predicts a behavior it was designed to predict. (Aptitude tests have predictive ability if they can predict future achievements.)​

Cohort

the same group of people

Cross-Sectional Study

- compare people of different ages at the same point in time

- also compare people of different eras and life circumstances. - this can provide an excellent snapshot of a particular point in time

Longitudinal Study

- follow and retest the same cohort over a period of years

- are better equipped to trace the evolution of traits over a longer time period

Heritability

how much difference among a group of people is due to genetics, as opposed to environment

Psychometrics

the scientific study of measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

Executive Function

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal directed behavior

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure (step-by-step) that guarantees a solution to a problem

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that is usually speedier than an algorithm but is also more error-prone. It can result in both correct and incorrect solutions

Insight

is not a strategy-based solution, but rather a sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem

Confirmation Bias

obstacle to problem solving: predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our hypotheses

Fixation

obstacle to problem solving: can't see different perspectives

Mental Set

- obstacle to problem solving: experience, face problem as before

- may prevent us from taking the fresh perspective that would lead to a solution

Intuition

the effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thoughts we often use instead of systematic reasoning

Representative Heuristic

- leads us to judge the likelihood of things in terms of how they represent our prototype for a group of items

- based on prototypes, beware social consequences

Availability Heuristic

- we judge the likelihood of things based on how readily they come to mind, which may lead us to fear the wrong things

- FEARS, based on recent memory

Overconfidence

- the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

- sometimes our decisions and judgments go awry simply because we are more confident than correct

Belief Perseverance

- clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

- the more we come to appreciate why our beliefs might be true, the more tightly we cling to them

Framing

the way we present an issue—can be a powerful tool of persuasion