ap psych module 1

Nature-Nurture Issue

Debate over whether behavior is shaped more by genetics (nature) or environment/experience (nurture).

Charles Darwin

Proposed evolution by natural selection — traits that aid survival are passed on.

Natural Selection

Process where the best-adapted organisms survive and reproduce.

Evolutionary Psychology

Study of how evolution shapes behavior and mental processes.

Behavior Genetics

Study of how genes and environment influence behavior.

Mutation

Random genetic change that may cause variation in traits.

Environment

Every external influence, from surroundings to culture.

Heredity

Transmission of traits from parents to offspring through genes.

Genes

Segments of DNA that code for proteins; basic hereditary units.

Genome

The complete genetic material in an organism.

Twin Studies

Research comparing identical and fraternal twins to see genetic vs environmental effects.

Interaction

When one factor (like environment) influences the effect of another (like genes).

Epigenetics

Study of how environment affects gene expression without changing DNA.

Neuron

Basic nerve cell that sends and receives messages.

Cell body

Main part of neuron containing the nucleus.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions that receive messages.

Axon

Long fiber that sends impulses to other neurons or muscles.

Myelin sheath

Fatty covering that speeds up neural impulses.

Action potential

Electrical impulse that travels down the axon.

All-or-none response

Neuron fires completely or not at all.

Threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse.

Refractory period

Short time after firing when neuron can't fire again.

Synapse

Junction between neurons where messages pass.

Neurotransmitters (types)

Chemical messengers like dopamine, serotonin, ACh, GABA.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers and pleasure boosters.

Agonist

Molecule that mimics a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

Molecule that blocks a neurotransmitter's action.

Endocrine system

System of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that affect growth, metabolism, and mood.

Psychoactive drugs

Chemicals that change perception, mood, or behavior.

Substance abuse disorder

Ongoing craving or use of a drug despite harm.

Depressants

Drugs that slow neural activity (e.g., alcohol).

Tolerance

Reduced response after repeated drug use.

Addiction

Compulsive craving and use of a substance.

Withdrawal

Discomfort when stopping a drug after dependence.

Barbiturates

Depressants that reduce anxiety but impair memory/judgment.

Opioids

Pain-relieving drugs (e.g., morphine, heroin) that can be addictive.

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

Hallucinogens

Drugs that distort perception (e.g., LSD, marijuana).

Biological psychology

Study of the link between biology and behavior.

Biopsychosocial approach

Combines biological, psychological, and social factors.

Neuroplasticity

Brain's ability to reorganize after damage or learning.

Lesion

Tissue destruction used to study brain function.

EEG scans

Measure brain's electrical activity through electrodes.

CT scans

X-ray images showing brain structure.

PET scans

Show brain activity using radioactive glucose.

MRI scans

Use magnetic fields to show brain anatomy.

fMRI scans

Show brain function by tracking blood flow.

Hindbrain

Controls basic life functions (breathing, heartbeat).

Midbrain

Coordinates movement and sensory input.

Forebrain

Largest part; involved in thought, emotion, and memory.

Brainstem

Oldest part; controls automatic survival functions.

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

Sensory relay station to the cortex.

Reticular formation

Controls alertness and arousal.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance and movement.

Limbic system

Emotion and memory center.

Amygdala

Processes emotions like fear and anger.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, and the endocrine system.

Hippocampus

Forms and stores new memories.

Cerebral cortex

Outer brain layer for complex thought.

Frontal lobes

Planning, judgment, and motor control.

Parietal lobes

Sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital lobes

Processes visual information.

Temporal lobes

Processes hearing and memory.

Motor cortex

Controls voluntary movement.

Somatosensory cortex

Processes body touch sensations.

Association areas

Integrate information and link sensory inputs.

Neurogenesis

Creation of new neurons.

Corpus callosum

Connects left and right brain hemispheres.

Split brain procedures

Cut corpus callosum to stop seizures.

Consciousness

Awareness of self and environment.

Cognitive neuroscience

Study of brain activity linked to thinking.

Dual processing

Mind processes info consciously and unconsciously at once.

Parallel processing

Processing many aspects of a problem at the same time.

Sleep

Natural periodic rest for body and mind.

Circadian rhythm

24-hour biological clock for sleep/wake cycles.

REM sleep

Dream stage with rapid eye movement and brain activity.

NREM sleep

Non-dream sleep stages (deep sleep).

Hypnagogic sensations

Vivid sensations while falling asleep.

Delta waves

Slow brain waves in deep sleep.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

Brain clock that controls circadian rhythm.

Insomnia

Ongoing difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Sleep apnea

Breathing stops repeatedly during sleep.

Dream

Sequence of images and thoughts during sleep.

Sensation

Detecting physical energy from the environment.

Sensory receptors

Specialized cells that detect stimuli.

Perception

Organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Bottom-up processing

Start with sensory input to build perception.

Top-down processing

Use experience and expectations to interpret stimuli.

Transduction

Converting sensory energy to neural signals.

Psychophysics

Study of relationships between physical stimuli and perception.

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus.

Signal detection theory

Predicts when we detect faint signals amid noise.

Subliminal messages

Below conscious awareness but can affect behavior.

Priming

Unconscious activation of certain associations.

Difference threshold

Smallest detectable difference between stimuli.

Weber's law

To notice a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant ratio.

Sensory adaptation

Reduced sensitivity after constant stimulation.