AP Psychology Unit 3

Stability and Change

What traits about you remain consistent over your life and what traits change over time

Nature vs. Nurture

nature- inherited traits

nurture- environment developed

Continuous and Discontinuous Stages of Development

Continuous- Traits ones that unfold over time. They are gradual and usually quantitative. (height, weight, vocab)

Discontinuous- development stages that occur in distinct stages. You can’t get to the next without the one under it. (cognitive development)

Cross-Sectional Research

comparing people of different ages at the same time on the same things

• faster

• the difference between ages may not match mental age

• confounding variables (culture)

Longitudinal Research

when you study individuals over a long period of time

• helps to recognize real developmental change

• good at identifying pattern

• takes long time

• risk participants will stop

Teratogens

harmful agents (chemicals, drugs, viruses) that go through the placenta and negatively affect an embryo or fetus

Maternal Illnesses

underlying conditions that a mother has that might influence the baby

• anemia, anxiety, depression, diabetes

• can cause early birth

Genetic Mutations

• mutation in sperm and egg, disrupting DNA

• some can know before birth

• some medications can help certain conditions

Rooting

a reflex in a baby where they turn their head and open mouth / suck when the cheek is touched

Visual Cliff

learning depth perception

Critical Periods

a specific window of time when an organism is sensitive to environmental input (0-5 yrd)

• develop attachment style

Sensitive Periods

a time when learning is easier than later in life

• language, socialization

Imprinting

a rapid, often irreversible form of learning occurring in a critical, early developmental period, where young animals fixate on, follow, and form a deep bond with the first moving object (usually a parent)

Adolescence

the transition from childhood to adulthood

Puberty

period of sexual maturation. It’s when people become able to reproduce. Average: 10-12

Primary Sex Characteristics

directly involved in reproduction

• ovaries, uterus, eggs

Secondary Sex Characteristics

emerge during puberty but not directly involved in reproduction

• hair, sweat

Menarche

first menstrual cycle in females

Spermarche

beginning of sperm production in males

Menopause

you no longer have your mensuration. Usually happens in 50s

Sex

biological characteristics you’re given at birth

• male, female, intersex

Gender

attitudes, feelings, or behaviors that a given culture associates with a person associates with a biological sex

• blue vs pink

Jean Piaget

famous psychologist who worked on childhood development (especially accommodation and assimilation)

• developed cognitive stages based on how children adapted experiences from changing or adapting schemas

Schema

a cognitive framework or mental structure that organizes knowledge, experiences, and perceptions to help individuals interpret new information efficiently

Assimilation

the cognitive process of incorporating new information, experiences, or ideas into the schema

Accommodation

modify their existing mental frameworks (schemas) or create new ones to fit new information or experiences that don't easily integrate

Sensorimotor Stage

• infants learn about the world through sensory experiences and develop motor actions

• object permanence

Object Permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when they are not seen

Preoperational Stage

• ages 2-7

• when children are starting to use language but not fully comprehending concrete language yet

• mental symbols- if they see a photo they’ll find the thing

• pretend play

• animism- idea that inanimate objects have feelings

• egocentrism- children not understanding there are other perspectives outside their own

• conservation

Conservation

the ideas of mass, volume, numbers don’t exist

Reversibility

develop concepts of volume, mass, and numbers

Egocentrism

children not understanding there are other perspectives outside their own

Theory of Mind

When children begin to understand that other people have minds

• leaving pre-operational and going into concrete operational

Concrete Operational Stage

• 7-11 year olds

• develop concepts of volume, mass, numbers

• start to think logically and can understand the world in a logical way

• systematic thinking (learning step-by-step processes)

Formal Operational Stage

• 12 to adults

• when you can start thinking hypothetically and abstractly

• develop critical thinking skills

Lev Vygotsky

psychologist that focused on cognitive development

• social and cultural aspects of it

Made theory that children learn through social interaction and scaffolding

Scaffold

build a basic idea then build on top of it continuously

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

put children in zones of what they can and can’t do and also what they can do with help

• it allows for teacher, instructor, kid to know what to work towards

Crystallized Intelligence

the ability to use accumulated knowledge built through education and life experience

Dementia

an umbrella term for loss of memory and other thinking abilities severe enough to interfere with daily life

Language

an agreed upon way to communicate

Phonemes

the smallest distinctive sound units in a language (uh, tuh) - sound

Morphemes

smallest units of meaning in a language (dog, un, …)

Semantics

the rules for deriving meaning from sounds and words. (the meaning) - how you word things

• ex: the dog chased the cat vs the cat changed the dog

Grammar

the overall system of language rules

Syntax

the rule for combing words. (structure / order)

• the boy kicked the ball vs boy the ball kicked

Cooing

the noises babies make

• 2-4 months

• to express

Babbling

• 4-6 months

• trying out language

One-Word Stage

kids using one word cause they don’t know many and can’t make sentences

Two-Word Stage

a milestone in language development

Telegraphic Speech

a language development stage where toddlers use short, simple phrases with essential words (nouns, verbs) while omitting small grammatical words (articles, prepositions, auxiliary verbs), similar to a telegram, to convey meaning like "Want cookie"

Overgeneralization

wen we apply grammatical rules to broadly

• ex: mouses, goed, cutted

Ecological Systems Theory

The way different systems effect you.

Microsystem

most immediate environment

• family, school

Mesosystem

connects our relationships between microsystems and how your interaction in the microsystems influences development

• how relationship with parents effects how you act to teachers

Exosystem

your external environment that indirectly impacts a person’s development

• parents work offers free daycare. It’s underfunded and not great but you go anyway

Macrosystem

society and cultural context that shapes development

• values, morals, laws

Chronosystem

we all live in time. since we live in time there are transitions in life and historical events that influence your development

• covid

Attachment

the relationship between the parent and child

Authoritarian Parenting

when parents are corrosive. They make the rules and expect obedience

Authoritative Parenting

the rule is given along with its reasoning. Negotiation is involved.

Permissive Parenting

parents that have few rules and little structure. Slightly neglective

Secure Attachment

when infants or children are comfortable exploring their environment in the presence of the care giver

• kid talks to babysitter with parent

• sad when parent leaves

• then okay

• overly excited when they come back

Insecure Attachment

very clingy or anxious attachment. Resisting closeness. You don’t care when a parent leaves or you have a break down.

Avoidant Attachment

you have a difficult time forming close relationships. Scared of emotions and intimacy

Anxious Attachment

strong desire for closeness but fear of rejection

• anger towards past relationships

• unpredictable behaviors

Disorganized Attachment

• a mix of anxious and avoidant

• difficulty forming close relationship and a strong fear of abandonment

Separation Anxiety

an intense fear of being separated from a care giver

Stranger Anxiety

a normal developmental stage where infants and toddlers fear unfamiliar people, typically starting around 6-9 months, peaking around 12-15 months, and generally fading by age 2-3

• crying, clinging, hiding

Temperament

innate, biologically based behavioral styles and emotional tendencies, forming the foundation of personality from birth

Parallel Play

when kids play next to each other without concern

Pretend Play

playing make believe

Adolescence egocentrism

the inability to see other perspectives

Imaginary Audience

a cognitive distortion, often occurring in adolescence, where individuals believe they are under constant observation and judgment by others

Personal Fable

an adolescent's belief that they are unique, special, and invulnerable to dangers, often leading to risky behavior and a sense of being misunderstood

Social Clock

what society says about when you should be doing what

Emerging Adulthood

• 18s-20s

• they think they’re an adult but they’re still dependent and they’re not

Psychosocial Stages of Development

stages you go through as you’re developing

Trust and Mistrust (stage of psychosocial development)

• learning to trust or mistrust care givers

Autonomy and Shame and Doubt

• toddler gaining independence and making decisions that lead the shame

Initiative and Guilt

• school age time. take initiative to play and feel guilty when actions aren’t good

Industry and Inferiority

• comparing yourself to others and looking for praise. struggle = inferior

Identity and Role Confusion

• high school. switching friends, styles, interests. Lack of sense of self.

Intimacy and Isolation

• high school-early adulthood. sharing thoughts, emotions, etc

Generativity and Stagnation

• Merging adulthood. You aren’t sure if you are contributing to society

Integrity and Despair

• when you look on life and feel either despair or satisfaction

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

stressful or traumatic events to occur during childhood

• effects on relationships: don’t trust people with struggles / intimacy

• sociocultural effects

  • (in some cultures strict parenting is normal)

Identity

organized sense of self, encompassing their unique traits, beliefs, values, experiences, roles, and social group memberships, providing continuity and a framework for understanding who they are in relation to others

Achievement (of Identity)

actively seeking who you are

Diffusion (of Identity)

lack of expression or commitment

Foreclosure (of Identity)

decided on identity without considering anything else

Moratorium (of Identity)

actively exploring different identities and not making a commitment

Associative Learning

a fundamental process where an organism learns to connect or associate two stimuli, or a stimulus and a response, allowing them to predict events and guide behavior

Behavioral Perspective

psychologists often used classical conditioning as a way to study the behaviors of individuals

behaviorism: the theory that psychology can be objectively studied through observable action

Classical Conditioning

one action, sound, behavior (stimulus) brings a certain response

Acquisition

the initial, foundational stage of learning where a response is first established, conditioned, and gradually strengthened

Associative Learning

a fundamental process where an organism learns to connect or associate two stimuli, or a stimulus and a response, allowing them to predict events and guide behavior

Unconditioned Stimulus

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response.

• smelling food —> mouth waters

Unconditioned Response

an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Respond

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus