saq cummulative = cognitive

msm intro content

memory define. msm 1968 atkinson and shiffrin. 3 components based on duration and capacity (sensory, stm, ltm). rehearsal stm -> ltm. thesis

MSM?

first proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. The model suggests that memory is divided into 3 components based on duration and capacity: sensory memory, short term memory stores (STM), and long term memory (LTM).

3 components of MSM

Sensory memory does not process information and only detects information and holds it until it is either transferred to STM or lost. The condition required for sensory memory to be transferred to STM is attention. The capacity of the sensory model is limited by our perception and attention and the duration is very short (fractions of a second to 2 seconds). STM has a capacity of 7+-2 chunks of information and duration of approximately 30 seconds. The condition required for transferring information from STM to LTM is rehearsal (either through maintenance -- simple repetition -- or elaborative rehearsal -- pondering on the meaning and trying to make associations). to consolidate the memory. LTM stores large amounts of information for indefinite periods of time. The capacity of LTM is estimated to be virtually unlimited.

glanzer and cunitz study

lab exp- serial pos effect and whether stm and ltm are sep stores. 240 army enlisted men. req mem word list then free recall task, any order allowed. condition 1: free recall immediately. condition 2: delay, filler task (brown peterson technique counting back from given number for 30 sec) to prevent rehearsal.

glanzer and cunitz results

participants in first free recall condition were better at remembering words at start of list (primacy) and end of list (recency). second condition: primacy retained but recency not shown

link back glanzer and cunitz

results illustrate that LTM STM are separate stores and rehearsal needed to enter LTM. primacy effect both condition bc first words rehearsed more enter LTM. last words not rehearsed enough in filler task. hence stm decayed in 30 sec. shows that rehearsal needed for memory to enter LTM and duration of STM is 30s. hence...

wm intro content

baddeley and hitch 1974, development from MSM. stm has multiple stores: central exec, phon loop, visuospatial, episodic buffer. (EXPLAIN) model suggests diff cog tasks simultaneous if not using same store. if same used, performance of stores impaired leading to less accurate memory. thesis

PARTS OF THE WMM

The central executive is a modality-free store that controls the operations of sub-systems of processing and storage. It has limited capacity and is able to control attention on a supervisory and automatic level. The episodic buffer temporarily holds required information at the same time and is responsible for consciousness. The visuospatial sketchpad is the visual and spatial store of STM. The phonological loop is the auditory part of STM and is divided into the articulatory control system (holds sound passively and allows rehearsal of information) and phonological store (holds auditory memory) 

WMM MULTITASK + STRENGTH AND LIMITS

This model suggests that different cognitive tasks can be done simultaneously if they are not using the same store. If the same store is used, the performance of those stores would be impaired leading to less accurate memory. The strength of the working memory model is that it is supported by considerable experimental evidence and helps to understand why it is possible to multitask in some situations but not in others. However, limitations include the role of the central executive being unclear and the unclear interaction between different parts of the model.

landry and bartling study

lab exp if articualtory supp influence recall of written list of phon dissimilar letters in serial recall. 34 uni US students. articulatory supp def. independent measures, 2 groups (control and experimental). experimental performed articulatory supp task while memorizing. randomly allocated. tested individual. 10 lists of 7 phono dissimlar letters. exp group: saw list while having to recall while saying 1,2 at rate of 2 numbers per second. control group - presented with list for 5 seconds then instructed to write correct order of letter.

articulatory suppression

Articulatory suppression involves a subject speaking an irrelevant sound during a memory task (such as “the, the…) to prevent rehearsal

landry and bartling results

exp condition scored much lower than control condition for mean percent of accurate recall (76 vs 45%)

link back landry and bartling

to link back, supports WMM. exp condition lower accurate recall as AS prveented rehearsal in phon loop due to overload. difficulty for memorizing while control did not exp overload. study supports working of phono loop and susceptibility to interference, reinforce WMM premise that simultaneous tasks using same cog store can impair memory accuracy and that STM divided into diff stores.

schema intro content

schema def. Schema processes information in two ways. Bottom-up processing involves perception that is driven by external stimulus, where sensory information is interpreted based on inherent properties without reliance on prior knowledge. Top-down processes refers to perception guided by prior knowledge and experiences, influencing the interpretation of sensory information.

The strength of schema theory is that a significant amount of research has supported the idea that schemas affect cognitive processes such as memory. The limitation is that it is not clear how schema is initially acquired and its exact influence on cognitive processes.

WHAT IS SCHEMA

mental representations that are used to organize knowledge, assist recall, guide behavior, predict likely events, and help individuals to make sense of their experiences

It enables people to guide how we think and behave and help us to make sense of current experiences.

Bartlett study

true exp how memory of story is affected by prev knowledge and if cultural background and unfamiliarity with text would lead to memory distortion. barlett hypothesized that memory is reconstructive and individuals store and retrieve info according to expectations from cultural schemas. 20 participants british cambridge uni. told native american legend war of ghosts. allocated to 1/2 conditions

bartlett conditions

1 - repeated reproduction reproduce story after short time and over diff periods of time. 2 - serial reprod. recall story and rep to another person .

bartlett results

no sig difference between way two groups recalled story. both showed distortion of memories with 3 main patterns - assimilation levelling sharpening. assimilation - story became more consistent w expectations based on cultural schema (details unconsciously charged). story also became shorter w each retell omit info viewed as unimportant. finally, tended to change order of story to make better sense using terms more familiar to culture

link back bartlett

study describes schema theory and how it may affect cog process. according to findings, remembering is active process where info is retrieved and changed to fit existing schema. not passive memorizing but changed to more familiar contexts via cultural schema. ex) hunting seals --> fishing, canoe --> boat (more consistent with british culture). in concl, study shows cultural schema leads to memory distortion as individuals store and retrieve info to align w prior expectations

cognitive processing intro

humans are prone to biases in thinking and decision making due to way we process info. thinking def. decision making def.

The theory of dual system model proposed by Kahneman postulates 2 systems of thinking. System 1 is an autonomic, intuitive, and effortless way of thinking. employs heuristics as mental shortcuts. likely to create greater certainty.

system 2 is a slower, conscious, more rational mode of thinking. transfers information from one situation to new situations and is less likely to create feelings of certitude and confidence.

Humans tend to have cognitive biases since humans are cognitive misers, and have the desire to avoid ego depletion, and cognitive overload. 

heuristics

rules used to make decisions or form judgments -- as mental shortcuts

thinking

process of using knowledge and information to interpret the world.

decision making

process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the agent’s values and preferences.

anchoring bias

the tendency to rely heavily on the first piece of information we are given about a topic. It serves as an “anchor” for subsequent decisions which is choosing system 1 over system 2.

tversky and kahneman study

lab exp investigate effect of anchor on est value of mathematical problem. hyp that first number seen would serve as an anchor and bias the estimate of value (assuming we read left to right). participants were hs students. independent measure. ascending and descending condition (estimate 8! but 1x2x or 8x7x) in 5 seconds.

tversky and kaheman results

median for asc group was 512 (sig lower). med for desc group was 2250 though both were sig lower than actual value.

link back tversky and kahneman - thinking and decision making

clearly demonstrate impact of anchoring bias in decision making process. first piece of info (first number) affected estimate of value. as there was no time to used system 2, led participants to employ s1 quick decision making. results suggest anchoring bias played sig role in estimation in both groups. hence, show that fast and intuitive thinking of s1 is prone to error and bias.

link back - intuitive thinking

emphasize use of intuitive thinking

link back - rational thinking

emphasize that rational thinking was not used due to time

reconstructive memory intro content

human memory is active process involving reconstruction of info. first theorized by barlett. during reconstructive process, distortions occur. 2 types of info- obtained during and after event. 2 types of info can be integrated over time to extent that cannot distinguish each one. reconstructive processes of memory can be affected by diverse cog processes such as individual perception, social influence, prior knowledge result in inaccurate memory. thesis

reconstructive memory ?

theory that memories are accessed as a collection of independent memories put together rather than a single whole memory

loftus and palmer study

lab exp investigate whether use of leading q would affect speed estimation. hyp that use of smashed = greater estimatino of speed than word hit. 45 students divided into 5 group of 9. independent sample design. each condition, same 7 film of traffic accidents from drivers ed but diff critical word (verb of diff intensity) used in leading q (smash, collide, bump, hit, contact). then asekd to give account of accidents and answer questionnaire. one of q was critical question "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed" results: mean estimate of speed highest in smash and lowest in contacted.

leading question

question which either by form or content suggest which answer is desired

link back loftus

study supports theory of RM bc verb choice can influence recall of past memory. memory is not entirely reliable cog process, prone to reconstruction. in study, intensity of verb activated schema ab car accident resulting in diff eyewitness testimony. shows how post event info affects info obtained during event.

emotion and memory intro

intro flashbulb memory (1977), definition - vivid (highly detailed) memories of the circumstances in which one first learned of a surprising and emotional event, brown and kulik assumed bc... special mechanism hypothesis, thesis

special mechanism hypothesis

argues for the existence of a special biological memory mechanism. When triggered by an event exceeding critical levels of surprise, this creates a permanent record of the details and circumstances surrounding the experience.

memory is...

process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

brown and kulik study

1977, self report questionnaire - whether surprisng and personally sig events can cause FM. 40 black and 40 white american males survey about 9 public figure deaths (JFK, MLK) and someone they know personally. interview --> where, who, wyd when hear about it, how they found out, feeling, personal relevance, and how often they talked about

brown and kulik results

90% recalled sig amount of detail ab day when events occurred. most had very detailed memories of death of loved ones. however, difference in memories of assasination of public officials based on personal relevance. 75% black FM of MLK 33% white

link back emotion and memory

to link back, study illustrates impact of emotion on memory supporting influence of emotion on cog processes. events of personal sig and high surprise trigger vivid detailed recall. black more likely to have vivid FM for MLK assasination (personal sig and more emotion) while white - JFK. findings (disparity btwn black and white) emphasizes role of emotion in cog