As level Aqa Sociology - Introduction to Social Theory

As level Aqa Sociology - Introduction to Social Theory flashcards

What is a structural theory?

Structural theories argue that the structure of society shapes the behaviour of individuals. They are macro. E.g Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism

What is an Action theory?

Action theories argue that it is the action of individuals which create the structures which shape behaviour. They are micro and small scale, we are not puppets on strings, they argue we have free will.

What is consensus theory?

Co-operation is an essential part of society. People share norms and values. Inequality is necessary. Conflict is temporary. E.g Functionalism

What is Conflict theory?

Different groups hold different interests. One group can control the other. Conflict is always present in society. E.g Marxism, Feminism

When did Sociology begin?

The Enlightenment or “Age of reason” in the 1800s signalled a change towards thinking about society. Science and reason replaced tradition, superstition and religious beliefs. These new theories of society (Functionalism and Marxism) arose out of the Enlightenment. They tried to explain how society worked by using reason to explain and justify ideas about human behaviour, social change and future development.

What 3 types of society do sociologists see society develop into?

Pre Modern (before 1860) Modern (1860-1960) Post Modern (1960-present day)

What was Pre Modern society like?

There was little social change, with religion, superstition and traditions that formed the basis of life. Feudalism with no sociological theories.

What was Modern society like?

The Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment caused change in society. There were 4 key features: Industrialism - making goods by machine. Capitalism - businesses making goods for profit. Urbanism - people moved from towns to cities. Democracy - people had a say on how society was run. Fordism - a system of mass production and consumption. Theories like Functionalism and Marxism arose from this era.

What is Post Modern society like?

Technology and Globalisation has caused change in society. Features: People have more choices. Post-Fordist. Identity fluid. Questions on progress and reasons to explain change. Modernist theories are outdated.

What type of theory is Functionalism?

Structural theory Consensus theory

What is Functionalism?

Emile Durkheim believes that society is made up of functions, like the human body, that rely on each other to survive. - Organic analogy

What are the Key concepts of Functionalism?

Organic analogy Primary socialisation Value consensus Social solidarity Collective consciousness Role allocation Meritocracy Achieved status (Open system) Self regulating system

What is value consensus?

We agree on norms and values.

What is social solidarity?

We share those norms and values. This gives us a sense of belonging and unity. This ensures social order and stability, without this there would be social chaos.

What is collective consciousness?

Social glue keeping us together.

“If it exists in all societies, it must serve a function” What are the functions of crime?

Leads to social change. Acts as a warning function, telling us there is a problem in society. Tests the norms and values. Creates jobs.

If it exists in all societies, it must serve a function” (Durkheim) What are the functions of poverty?

Acts as a motivator for you to do well. Acts as an incentive so people try their best in school because they do not want to live like these people.

Who is Davis and Moore?

They argue that for society to work people need to be motivated to do things, this is achieved via the use of incentives for people to work hard.

What is Meritocracy?

IQ + Effort = Reward

What is role allocation?

The education system will sift and sort people out into the roles that they will later go on to perform in life.

Do functionalists believe that inequality for society?

Functionalists believe that inequality is essential for society to run, as not everyone will acquire the skills needed for specific roles. For example, to be a brain surgeon, one will need particular qualifications. This status is achieved not ascribed. In order, to cater for this Talcott Parsons suggests we need role allocation.

What does society need to work, according to Parsons?

If society is going to work, there needs to be, harmony, consensus and agreement. Conflict is temporary and is just society sorting itself out, just like your body overcoming illness. Primary socialisation ensures this.

How is the Functionalist value Meritocracy promoted in society?

Through Education

How is the Functionalist value Primary socialisation promoted in society?

Through family

How is the Functionalist value Collective consciousness promoted in society?

Through religion

How is the Functionalist value Value consensus promoted in society?

Through laws

What did Durkheim mean by the word anomie?

Not knowing norms and values. A sense of normlessness. This shows the importance of social integration for Functionalism as it makes individuals feel part of a community.

What are the strengths of Functionalism?

+Connects individuals to society via norms and values. +Organic analogy helpful when things in society “break down”. +Explains how institutions work together and explain unusual behaviour (anomie). +Supported by research, Davis and Moore’s study illustrated how inequality was necessary for society.

What are the weaknesses of Functionalism?

Views individuals like puppets on strings. Ignores conflict. Overlooks class, gender, race, inequality. Is everything functional, poverty? Excuse to support the rich? Outdated?

Who are the key theorists in Functionalism?

Durkheim Parsons Davis and Moore

What type of theory is Marxism?

Structural theory Conflict theory

What is Marxism

A conflict theory that believes that capitalist society is based on inequalities between the bourgeoisie (ruling capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class).

What are the key concepts of Marxism?

Capitalism Class conflict Alienation Exploitation Ideology False consciousness Myth of meritocracy Infrastructure and Superstructure Ideological state apparatus and Repressive state apparatus

What do Marxists believe?

The Industrial Revolution signalled the transition from feudalism to capitalism. The arrival of capitalism saw the emergence of a class system; those who ran and owned factories (the bourgeoisie) and those who they employed (the proletariat). Infrastructure determines the Superstructure. Capitalism produces alienation and false consciousness. It requires exploitation.

What did Karl Marx argue?

That your class position is determined by your relationship to the work (means of production). All societies were founded on conflict, the small ruling class (minority group) could now control, exploit and impose their capitalist ideas onto the working class (majority group).

What is Capitalism?

An economic and political system where trade and industries are controlled by private owners for profit as opposed to the state.

Why did Marx hate Capitalism?

Created division/conflict Created alienation Built on exploitation, encourages greed Unethical Doomed to fail

What is Infrastructure?

The economic basis of society. Marx suggests this is unequal because one group has more power than the other and can therefore control and exploit the other.

What is Superstructure?

Includes the media, religion, politics, education, family as well as norms and values in a society that are not directly related to production.

What is Ideology?

A set of beliefs, values, assumptions and expectations that shape how people think, act and interact. Marx argues that most people do not see this inequality because our minds are coloured by ideology.

What is False consciousness?

The idea that people in capitalist societies are unable to recognise the negative aspects of their society, such as exploitation and inequality. The working class start to believe that the system is fair and they don’t question it.

How are we made to believe that society is fair?

For example, in education we are made to believe the system is meritocratic, that it supports everyone, so one individuals fail, they blame themselves not the system, so the unfair system can continue to operate unquestioned.

What is Myth of Meritocracy?

Argues that meritocracy is not widely attainable in capitalist societies.

How is False consciousness created?

Capitalist ideology promotes the myth of meritocracy, for Marx this create false consciousness.

Would Marx support the welfare state?

Marx would not support the welfare state as it directly runs on capitalism, therefore benefiting those who run society (ruling class). While the working class may feel it provides them opportunities by preventing unemployment, it produces false consciousness, where individuals start to believe that the system is fair rather than unequal.

What is Exploitation?

The act of taking unjust advantage of another for one’s own benefit. Karl Marx’s concept of exploitation is that workers are not compensated for the full value of their labour, and that the surplus value created by their labour is appropriated by the capitalist class.

What is Alienation?

A feeling disconnection or estrangement from a group, society or one’s self. When you no longer see your skills in the products you are producing.

Who is Louis Althusser?

Marxist theorist

What did Althusser suggest?

State uses societies institutions such as education to brainwash you into the values of capitalism, that it’s meritocratic. Ideology is spread by institutions such as; family, education, media and religion. - Ideological state apparatus.

How is this ideology maintained, according to Althusser?

Ideology is maintained via police, laws and army. He calls these Repressive state apparatus.

How does such Ideology control us?

The Ideological state apparatus, such as education, church, media and family control you by their ideas, whereas the Repressive state apparatus, such as police, laws and army control you by force.

How does Althusser see meritocracy as?

Marxist Louis Althusser sees Functionalist ideas like meritocracy as a myth as a way to brainwash the working class into accepting capitalist ideas, such as inequality is fair and natural.

What did Herbert Marcuse suggest about capitalism?

Marxist Herbert Marcuse maintained that capitalism creates false needs, the working class are made to believe that they need certain goods, like the latest Iphone or new shoes and this creates false desires and makes us isolated individuals. This helps disguise their exploitation and the harsh reality of capitalism, it tries to make capitalism appear as meeting people’s needs when in reality it is just concerned about increasing profits for Capitalists.

What are false needs?

Artificial desires that are imposed on people by social interests to perpetuate suffering, injustice and aggression. They are often created by consumer culture, social pressure or advertising.

How can people break free from the cycle of false needs, according to Marcuse?

Herbert Marcuse’s theory of false needs suggests that people can break free from the cycle of false needs by questioning their own desires and making choices that align with their values.

What are the strengths of Marxism?

+A lot of evidence to support Marxism. + Highlights the significance of class in relation to wealth and power. + Offers a convincing analysis of capitalism. +Surely communism is a lot more ethical than capitalism?

What are the weaknesses of Marxism?

-Over emphasises conflict when there must be harmony and shared values for social order to be possible. -Society doesn’t always act in the interest of the ruling class. -Too class based and generalised. -Determinist. -Are the working class passive?

Who are the key theorists in Marxism?

Althusser Marcuse

What type of theory is Neo Marxism?

What is Neo-Marxism?

A collection of sociological theories that re-evaluate Marx ideas.

What are the key concepts of Neo Marxism?

Hegemony Dual consciousness Relative autonomy Counter hegemony

Who is Antonio Gramsci?

One of the most influential Neo-Marxists,who rejected Marx ideas that economic forces or the infrastructure determines the worker’s experience of capitalist society. He focused on the role of the superstructure and particularly ideology in how this was transmitted to the population.

What was Gramsci concerned with?

How the ruling class get their ideas across the working class; he argued that ownership of the means of production alone could not explain why the working class conform.

How does the ruling class control the working class, according to Gramsci?

Gramsci suggests that the ruling class cannot control the working class via force alone, so capitalists need their consent to rule as the working class are in the majority. This is achieved via persuasion and dominant values (Hegemony), therefore controlling the ideas in society will allow the minority to control the other group.

What is Hegemony?

A form of domination where one social group gains and maintains power through consent rather than force. Dominant values

Why is meritocracy unquestioned by society?

Capitalist values such as meritocracy have become so naturalised that in turn, they become common-sense. Therefore go unchallenged.

What is Dual consciousness?

The idea that people can hold 2 contradictory sets of beliefs at the same time.

How does the working class see through ideology, according to Gramsci?

The working class experiences things which contradict what capitalism tell them i.e that it is fair and equal. They experience challenges, such as hardship, poverty and unemployment which the middle class do not. As a result, they can develop their own ideas on capitalism, which could force social change. Gramsci argued that the working class suffers dual consciousness from seeing through the ideology.

What is counter hegemony?

How people challenge the dominant beliefs, assumptions and behaviours of a society.

What is the solution to becoming a victim of exploitation?

While Marx believed that the working class would eventually overthrow the system, Gramsci suggests a realistic alternative to capitalism, such as the working class need to win the battle of ideas by developing a counter hegemony.

What is Relative autonomy?

The independence of certain aspects of society from the economic base. Ideas can develop separately from the people who run society, social change is not just determined by economics but ideology and culture.

What are the strengths of Neo-Marxism?

+Shows how ideology actually works to make itself unrecognisable (Hegemony). +Brings Marxism up to date. +Brings in ideas such as culture to explain how the ruling class maintain dominance.

What are the weaknesses of Neo-Marxism?

-Exaggerates free will. -If the working class question things at work, they may get sacked, as they have no authority. -So most working class are passive?

What type of theory is the New right?

What is the New Right?

UK Government under Margaret Thatcher and John Major 1979-1997 (Conservatives)

What are the Key concepts of the New Right?

Traditional values Anti welfare state Dependency culture Roll back the state Privatisation Marketisation The Underclass Individualism Nuclear family

What are Left Wing values?

Associated with liberal values, role of society and community as a whole. Problems come from society itself. Pro change and diversity. Inequality is unfair and unnecessary. Welfare state is a good thing as it supports the poor. Increased tax ensures that services are run properly and can benefit everyone, especially the poor. Nationalise services i.e state owned, so they are available to all. Support collectivism.

What are Right Wing values?

Associated with conservative values. Problems in society come from individuals. Anti change and diversity. Inequality is necessary and natural. Welfare state is a bad thing as it makes the poor lazy and dependent. Taxation punishes those who work hard in society, acts as a disincentive. Privatise services i.e privately owned, so they are available to those who can afford them. Support Individualism

What are the Old Right beliefs?

The state has a duty to support the poor (safety net). Part of the tax and spend years. Nationalisation. State control or services i.e education and health. Need to support the poor.

What are the New Right beliefs?

Welfare state creates dependency. Stand on your own 2 feet. reduces taxes and spending. Privatisation. Competition raises standards. Marketisation where everyone has a choice. Underclasss a new problem.

What do the New Right share in common with Functionalism?

View society as meritocratic See inequality as natural and necessary for society to function Dislike social change, see religion as reinforcing norms and values Strong on law and order Nuclear family is best

What are some features of the New Right?

Arose as a reaction to the changing values in the 1960s. Decline in moral/traditional values created a new problem in society. Believe that the state is becoming to involved in people’s lives. The welfare state is creating a dependency culture.

What is Anti welfare state?

While the welfare state aims to improve the social and economic wellbeing of its citizens, by providing individuals with education, healthcare and housing benefits, the New Right believes that it creates a dependency culture, so instead “people should stand on their own 2 feet”.

What is Rolling back the state?

Low taxation (incentive to work hard)

What is Privatisation?

Process where public assets, services or industries are transferred from being owned by the state to being privately owned.

Does the New Right believe in Privatisation?

The state should not run services i.e education and healthcare, they should be placed in the hands of Entrepreneurs and the private sector because this way the needs of the consumer can be met more effectively via competition.

What is Marketization?

Institutions such as education and healthcare should be run like a business, the idea is that increased competition leads to increased choice for consumers which in turn leads to a more efficient service.

How does Marketization raise standards.

It creates competition between the institutions, therefore raises standards.

What did Charles Murray identify?

He identified a new class called the Underclass. This was a section of society who did not want to work and held different values such as laziness, idleness, dependent on benefits and handouts.

What is the Underclass?

A segment of society that occupies the lowest possible position in a class hierarchy.

What does the New Right argue about inequality?

New Right argue inequality is good because it encourages people to work harder, those who work harder should be rewarded. The New Right revived the Victorian idea of the Undeserving poor; those who are lazy and lack responsibility should not receive state support because it creates a dependency culture.

What is Individualism?

A social and political philosophy that emphasises the value of the individual over the group. This was a new way of thinking called Neo Liberalism. Aimed to promote Individualism

What is a Nuclear family?

A family unit made up of two parents and their children who live together in single household.

What is the New Right’s view on Capitalism?

The New Right argued that capitalism supports everyone because; it creates jobs, 2nd hand cars, charity shops, reduced food in supermarkets. So tax cuts benefit everyone. They call this Trickle down economics.

According to Hyman and Sugarman, what is it that working class people have preventing them from success.

The poor have a culture that keeps them from success, these ideas are associated with Hyman and Sugarman who spoke of the different attitudes many working class people have in relation to the rest of society and these are passed on from parents. Different values: Collectivism - Class loyalty. Immediate gratification - Want things straight away. Present time orientation - Live for today. Fatalistic - Accept they cannot change their ways.

What are the strengths of the New Right?

+Encourages stability. +Competition raises standards. +Encourages innovation, we all benefit from low taxes. +Seeing us consumers means we are calling the shots?

What are the weaknesses of the New Right?

-Victim blaming. -Privatisation creates more inequality. -Free market unethical, creates greed. -Underclass a myth? -People may be poor due to a lack of government intervention?

Who are the Key theorists in the New Right?

Charles Murray Hyman and Sugarman

What type of theory is Feminism?

Structural theory Conflict theory

What is Feminism?

The belief that men and women should have equal opportunities in all aspects of life, including the political, economic and social.