NEW HUMAN BIO

how does coronary heart disease occur?

occurs when coronary arteries, which supply the heart with blood, become hardened and narrowed

what is the process involved in coronary heart disease called (when coronary arteries become hardened and narrowed)?

atherosclerosis.

causes of coronary heart disease?

unhealthy diet, lack of exercise, smoking and excessive alcohol consumption.

symptoms of coronary heart disease?

chest pain (angina), shortness of breath, fatigue, and palpitations

what is the cause of a stroke?

when the blood flow to part of the brain is cut off.

what is a ischemic stroke?

occurs when a blood clot or blockage interrupts blood flow to the brain

what is

haemorrhagic stroke?

due to bleeding into the brain by the rupture of a blood vessel

what is CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE?

is a progressive disease that makes it hard to breathe

what s chronic obstructive pulmonary disease caused by?

long term exposure to irritating gases or particulate matter,

what is hypertension?

a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated (high blood pressure)

what are risk factors for hypertension (high blood pressure)

excess weight, tobacco use, a sedentary lifestyle, excessive sodium intake, and a family history of hypertension.

what is hypotension?

low blood pressure,

symptoms of hypotension (low blood pressure)

dizziness or fainting

what does the circulatory/ cardiovascular system consist of?

heart, blood vessels, blood

what is the main function of the cardiovascular system?

to transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and cellular waste products throughout the body.

where does the right side of the heart pump blood?

pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs

where does the left side of the heart pump blood?

pumps oxygenated blood to the body.

what are the 3 main types of blood vessels

arteries, veins and capillaries

what is blood composed of?

red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma.

what is the cycle of blood flow called?

cardiac cycle

what is diastole? (part of the cardiac cycle)

when the heart muscles relax and fill with blood,

what is systole?

when the heart muscles contract and pump blood out.

what does the respiratory system primarily include?

nose, trachea, lungs, and the diaphragm.

what is the main function of the respiratory system?

oxygenate blood and remove carbon dioxide through the process of respiration

what does the trachea divide into?

two bronchi

where does gas exchange occur?

alveoli

give an adaptation of the alveoli

surrounded by a network of capillaries, allowing for the oxygen to pass into the blood, and carbon dioxide to be removed.

what is respiration?

the biochemical process where cells use oxygen to convert glucose into energy.

what happens during inhalation

the intercostal muscles contract, expanding the chest cavity and pulling air in.

what happens during exhalation?

the intercostal muscles relax, reducing the chest cavity’s volume and pushing air out.

what is body temperature controlled by?

controlled by the thermoregulatory centre located in the hypothalamus in the brain.

where does the thermoregulatory centre receive information about the body’s temperature from?

two sets of peripheral thermoreceptors in the skin and the blood temperature in the brain.

what is the ideal human body temperature?

37 degrees Celsius

what is A single piece of DNA together with associated proteins called?

chromotid

what is the difference between a chromosome and a chromatid?

A chromosome is a structure containing DNA that carries genetic information, while a chromatid is one of the two identical copies of a chromosome, formed after DNA replication.

what are the stages of mitosis?

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

how does miosis increase genetic diversity?

due to the shuffling of genetic material during the process.

what happens in interphase? (Overview)

he cell grows, carries out its normal functions, and prepares for cell division by replicating its DNA

what happens during the G phase of interphase?

the cell grows in size, synthesises new proteins and organelles, and carries out its specific functions. The cell prepares for DNA replication.

what happens in the S phase (of interphase)

is when DNA is replicated, each chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids.

what happens during the g2 phase (of interphase)

the cell continues to grow and prepare for mitosis. It produces proteins and organelles

what is the order of the phases in interphase?

g1
s
g2

what happens during prophase

Chromosomes condense and become visible, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and the mitotic spindle forms.

what happens during metaphase?

The chromosomes line up along the middle of the equator of the cell.

anaphase?

The sister chromatids separate and are drawn towards opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibres. (pulled Apart)

what happens during telophase?

Chromosomes decondense, a new nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes, and the mitotic spindle breaks down.

what happens during cytokenisis?

dividing the cytoplasm to create two independent daughter cells, each with a complete set of chromosomes and fully functional cellular components.

what does cellular respiration transform glucose into?

ATP

what are the stages of respiration IN order

Glycolysis, the Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle), and Oxidative Phosphorylation.

what happens during glycolysis

glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and reducing power in the form of NADH.

what happens during transcription?

the DNA code for a protein is copied into a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).

The mRNA molecule then moves out of the nucleus and attaches to a ribosome,

what happens during translation

The ribosome reads the sequence of codons in the mRNA and synthesizes the protein according to this code.

what are lysosomes?

are involved in digestion and waste removal within the cell. They contain digestive enzymes that break down waste materials, including complex molecules and unwanted parts of the cell.

what is exocytosis

where waste material is expelled from the cell

how does exocytosis work

a vesicle inside the cell fuses with the cell membrane and releases its contents outside of the cell.

what is facilitated diffusion

substances move across cell membranes using protein channels or carrier proteins.

what is endocytosis

involves the intake of materials into the cells

what is the cell membrane

flexible yet firm barrier that encloses the cell

what is the cytoplasm

watery substance in which all the organelles of the cell are suspended.

what is the mitochondria

site of cellular respiration

what does the rough endoplasm have that the smooth endoplasm doesn’t

ribosomes

what are enzymes?

biological catalysts

what is an enzyme made up of?

long chain of amino acids which folded up into a unique shape (proteins)

what does the substrate bind to?

he enzyme’s active site forming an enzyme-substrate complex.

what is the sugar in dna called?

deoxyribose. 

what is the sugar in rna called?

ribose

what is the bonds between the base pairs in dna?

hydrogen bonds

where is haemoglobin found?

red blood cells

what does haemoglobin do?

bind to oxygen in the lungs and then releases the oxygen in the body tissues

what is haemoglobin made from?

globlin proteins and heme groups

what is a key feature of a globular protein?

they are soluble in water

what are antiobodies?

proteins that are produced by the body’s immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria and viruses.

what forms maltose?

glucose and glucose

what forms sucrose?

glucose and fructose

what forms lactose?

glucose and galactose

what are polysaccharides?

polymer of between 200 and 100000 alpha glucose molecules

what is the formula for glucose?

C₆H₁₂O₆

what is the primary structure?

the sequence of amino acids found in a polypeptide chain

what is the secondary structure?

is the folding of the polypeptide chain into either beta pleated sheet or alpha helix due to hydrogen bonding

what is tertiary strucutre?

the overall 3d shape of the folded chain

what is the quaternary structure

the structure of proteins which are themselves composed of two or more smaller protein chains.

what is the structure of a nucleotide?

• sugar

• base

• phosphate

what are antibodies?

proteins that are produced by the body’s immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria and viruses.

what is collagen

protein that forms the primary structural element in skin, bones, tendons, and teeth.

how many different types of amino acids are there?

20

what are carbohydrates made from?

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.

what are lipids made from?

carbon and hydrogen and oxygen

what are lipids used as?

• long-term energy store, provide insulation, protection, and are essential for forming cell membranes.

what are nucleic acids made from?

nucleotides,

what are nucletotides made of

a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base.

what is ischemia

Oxygen deprivation,

what is inflammation

first response of tissues to injury, leading to the removal of harmful stimuli and damaged tissue.

what is Neutrophils,

a type of white blood cell, are usually the first cells to arrive at the site of an injury.

where are antigens found

on the pathogen

what do b lymphocytes do?

produce antibodies

what do neutrophils do?

release substances that kill and digest bacteria and damaged tissue, a process called phagocytosis.

what is the first response of tissues to injury?

inflammation

what do platelets do?

help to minimise blood loss from injury by forming a clot and releasing substances that help repair damaged blood vessels.

the repair process of tissues occurs in which two phases?

regeneration and fibrosis