long answer (memorise) for all topics

how body immunne system kills bacteria

1. white blood cell; 2. phagocyte; 3. engulf 4. digest 5. lymphocyte; 6. antibody bond to antigen;

lactobacillus making yogurt

Lactobacillus bacteria is added to the milk. It is heated and incubated in a fermenter. Lactic acid is produced as the bacteria ferment the lactose sugar in the milk. The lactic acid is what causes the milk to become solidified and clotted to form yoghurt.

bile - alkaline

secreted into the small intestine - neutralises the acidic conditions from the stomach to provide a suitable pH for enzymes to work at. It also emulsifies fats, increasing their surface area so enzymes can digest them more quickly

villi adapted to absorb glucose

1. large surface area; 2. microvilli ; 3. capillaries; 4. capillaries for concentration gradient 5. one cell thick wall 6. diffusion; 7. active transport;

variation/ resistant qs

1. variation 2. mutation 3. survive 4. reproduce 5. pass on gene 6. process continues over time

anaerobic respiration

2. less oxygen; 3. lactic acid / low pH; 4. denatures enzymes; 5. less energy

mouth digestion

1. amylase; 2. starch; 3. glucose; 4. physical digestion

why cells do not store glucose

soluble, osmotic effect

reflex arc

1. receptor

2. sensory neurone

3. impulse

4. CNS

5. synapse

6. relay neurone

7. motor neurone

8. effector

9. contract;

general enzyme function

1. specific

2. catalysts

3. successful collisions

4. active ate

5. enzyme and substrate fit together in complementary shape

6. optimum temperature and pH

carbohydrate use in plants

1. cellulose cell wall

2. starch for energy, attract insects

sickle cell anaemia

• mutation

• change in base sequence in gene for meoglobin

• inherit recessive allele

• produce abnormal hemoglobin

• red blood cells have sickle shape

less oxygen because of sickle cell

1. abnormal hemoglobin

2. carries less oxygen

3. red blood cells are sickle shaped

4. stick together

5. fewer red blood cells

mechanical digestion

• break food into smaller pieces

• by teeth

• increase surface area

• for enzymes

• speeds up chemical digestion

• easier to swallow

transpiration

• water evaporates from surface of mesophyll cells

• water vapour diffuses through stomata out of the leaf

structure of xylem

1. strong cell wall

2. lignin - prevent collapse and waterproofing

3. dead cells - little resistance

epidermis adaptation

• transparent - allow light to pass through

• thin

• stomata - gas exchange

palisade mesophyll adaptation

• many chloroplasts

• tightly packed

auxin

• produced in shoot tip

• diffuse down the stem

• collect in the side away from light

• stimulates greater cell elongation there

root hair cells

• long and thin

• thin cell wall

• large surface area for absorption

• against concentration gradient

• require energy

• many mitrochondria

water from root hair → stomata

• water moves up xylem

• water moves into leaf by osmosis

• loss of water from lead by evaporation

impulses transmit across synapse

• neurotransmitters in and diffuse across synaptic cleft

• binds with recceptor

• results in an impulse

insulin role

• hormone

• controls blood sugar concentration

• stimulates liver

• absorb sugar from blood

• stimulate production of glycogen in cells

• reduce concentration of glucose in blood

sexual reproduction in flowers

• genetic variation

• mutations to be exressed

• adaption to new conditions

• alleles from different parents

• cross pollination

• colonise new area

• less competition

• survive

self pollination ads

• greater chance of fertilisation

• less pollin waste

• only one plant needed

• greater chance of pollination

• pass adapted alleles to offspring

hole in heart/ single circulatory system less efficient

mixing of deoxygenated and oxygenated

less oxygenated blood to respiring cells

less aerobic respiration

less energy released

less growth

genetically modify bacteria

1 human gene; 2 restriction enzyme; 3 plasmid; 4 vector; 5 same restriction enzyme; 6 ligase; 7 recombinant plasmid