Ethical Theories and Technology in Engineering

Utilitarianism

A form of consequentialism concerned with doing the greatest good for the most people possible.

Consequentialism

An ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right based on its consequences.

Utilitarianism

A form of consequentialism concerned with doing the greatest good for the most people possible.

Consequentialism

An ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right based on its consequences.

Deontology

An ethical theory that uses rules to determine right from wrong.

Kant's Categorical Imperative

Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.

Virtue Ethics

Concerned with understanding and living a life of moral character.

Eudaimonia

A term used in virtue ethics referring to a state of flourishing or living well.

Justice as Fairness

A concept by John Rawls concerned with the distribution of resources and maximizing access.

Original Position

A hypothetical situation where people choose the world in which they will live under a veil of ignorance.

Veil of Ignorance

A method of determining the morality of issues by pretending that societal roles are not known.

NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers

A set of fundamental canons that guide the professional duties of engineers.

Fundamental Canon 1

Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.

Fundamental Canon 2

Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence.

Fundamental Canon 3

Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.

Fundamental Canon 4

Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.

Fundamental Canon 5

Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts.

Fundamental Canon 6

Engineers shall conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully.

Bias in Technology

The idea that technology can reflect and reinforce societal biases.

Technology Determinism

The theory that technology shapes society's values and structures.

Inherent Politics

The idea that artifacts and technologies can have political implications.

Structuring Power

The way in which technology can influence and organize power dynamics in society.

Ethics of Care

An ethical perspective that emphasizes interpersonal relationships and the importance of care.

Criticisms of Virtue Ethics

Concerns include self-centeredness, lack of action guiding, and moral luck.

Examples of Virtues

Courage, honesty, compassion, justice, wisdom, temperance.

Safety, health, and welfare

Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.

Areas of competence

Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.

Objective and truthful statements

Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.

Faithful agents or trustees

Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.

Deceptive acts

Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts.

Honesty and integrity

Engineers shall be guided in all their relations by the highest standards of honesty and integrity.

Public interest

Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the public interest.

Deceiving the public

Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice that deceives the public.

Confidential information

Engineers shall not disclose, without consent, confidential information concerning the business affairs or technical processes of any present or former client or employer, or public body on which they serve.

Conflicting interests

Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by conflicting interests.

Untruthful criticism

Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement or professional engagements by untruthfully criticizing other engineers, or by other improper or questionable methods.

Injuring professional reputation

Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the professional reputation, prospects, practice, or employment of other engineers.

Personal responsibility

Engineers shall accept personal responsibility for their professional activities.

Indemnification

Engineers may seek indemnification for services arising out of their practice for other than gross negligence, where the engineer's interests cannot otherwise be protected.

Credit for engineering work

Engineers shall give credit for engineering work to those to whom credit is due, and will recognize the proprietary interests of others.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is a moral principle that holds that the morally right course of action in any situation is the one that produces the greatest balance of benefits over harms for everyone affected.

Jeremy Bentham

The principle of utilitarianism can be traced to the writings of Jeremy Bentham.

Utilitarian calculation

The utilitarian calculation requires that we assign values to the benefits and harms resulting from our actions and compare them with the benefits and harms that might result from other actions.

Justice considerations

Utilitarianism fails to take into account considerations of justice.

Kant's view

Kant's view is to seek out the foundational principle of a metaphysics of morals.

Phenomena and noumena

Kant distinguished between phenomena, which is what we know through experience, and noumena, which we can consistently think but not know through experience.

Free act

A free act is one that can be described as determined by irreducibly mental causes, particularly by the causality of reason.

Supreme principle of morality

Two most basic aims Kant saw for moral philosophy are to seek out and establish the supreme principle of morality.

Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics is a broad term for theories that emphasize the role of character and virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing one's duty or acting in order to bring about good consequences.

Aristotle's view on virtue

Most virtue ethics theories take their inspiration from Aristotle who declared that a virtuous person is someone who has ideal character traits.

Eudaimonism

Eudaimonism bases virtues in human flourishing, where flourishing is equated with performing one's distinctive function well.

Agent-based theories

An agent-based theory emphasizes that virtues are determined by common-sense intuitions that we as observers judge to be admirable traits in other people.

Ethics of Care

A branch of virtue ethics proposed by feminist thinkers that emphasizes caring and nurturing alongside justice and autonomy.

Objections to Virtue Ethics

Critiques that include its self-centered conception of ethics, lack of guidance on actions, and the influence of uncontrollable factors on virtue cultivation.

Modern Moral Philosophy

A paper published by Elisabeth Anscombe in 1958 that criticized the law conception of ethics and called for a return to character, virtue, and flourishing.

Morality vs Ethics

Bernard Williams distinguished morality, characterized by Kant's notions of duty and obligation, from ethics.

Character Development Factors

Elements affecting character development include parents, teachers, peer groups, role models, encouragement, and exposure to different situations.

Eudaimonism

A strand of virtue ethics that defines the best kind of life as happiness, contentment, and fulfillment.

Agent-based Theories

Theories that understand the moral life in terms of being a virtuous individual with inner dispositions.

Feminine Virtues

Virtues exemplified by women, such as caring for others, patience, nurturing, and self-sacrifice, as proposed by feminist writers.

John Rawls

An influential American philosopher known for his work 'A Theory of Justice' which defined political philosophy.

Principles of Justice

Rawls proposed two key principles: equal basic liberties for all and acceptable economic inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged.

Original Position

A thought experiment by Rawls where individuals choose societal principles behind a 'veil of ignorance' regarding their future status.

Veil of Ignorance

A concept in Rawls's theory where individuals make decisions without knowledge of their future social status.

A Theory of Justice

Rawls's 1971 work that explores the foundations of political philosophy and principles of justice.

Civil Liberties

Basic rights and freedoms that a just society must ensure for all individuals.

Economic Inequalities

Differences in wealth and income that are only acceptable if they improve the situation of the poorest and most marginalized.

Feminist Virtue Ethics

An account of virtue ethics developed by feminist writers that emphasizes virtues traditionally associated with women.

Character

The set of moral and ethical qualities that define an individual, influenced by various social factors.

Flourishing

A state of thriving and living well, central to the concept of eudaimonia in virtue ethics.

Nurturing

A feminine trait emphasized in the ethics of care, involving support and encouragement of others.

Self-Sacrifice

A virtue associated with caring and nurturing, involving putting others' needs before one's own.

Kantian Morality

A moral framework characterized by duty and obligation, primarily associated with the philosopher Immanuel Kant.

Alasdair MacIntyre

A philosopher whose ideas stimulated increased interest in virtue ethics and historical accounts of virtue.

Education and Habituation

The long and gradual process through which natural tendencies are shaped and developed.

Influence of Society

The impact of societal factors on individual character development and virtue cultivation.

Rawls's vision

Radical but also conservative, as it assumed a broad societal consensus on justice that did not truly exist.

Critics of Rawls

Argue that his framework neglected issues of power, historical injustices (e.g., racism and colonialism), and structural conflicts in society.

Opponents of Rawls

Thinkers like Robert Nozick (libertarianism), Susan Moller Okin (feminism), and Michael Sandel (communitarianism) opposed his work.

Historical context of Rawls's ideas

Emerging from the post-WWII period, when many believed in a broad democratic consensus.

Political conflicts during Rawls's time

Intensified due to civil rights struggles, Vietnam War, and rising inequality, making Rawls's model appear disconnected from reality.

Ordinary-language philosophy

Influenced Rawls's work by focusing on the implicit rules of social practices.

Katrina Forrester's argument

Contends that Rawls's dominance in political philosophy narrowed the field, sidelining discussions of power, historical injustices, and collective struggle.

Abstract nature of political philosophy

The discipline became more abstract and less engaged with real-world issues like capitalism, racial inequality, and global justice.

Colonialism in Rawls's work

Rawls largely ignored the effects of colonialism, empire, and economic exploitation.

Future of political philosophy

The decline of Rawlsian consensus-driven liberalism raises new questions about justice in an era of deep political polarization.

Contemporary philosophy's focus

Must engage more with historical injustices and social struggles rather than rely on abstract models.

John Rawls

Philosopher, author of A Theory of Justice.

Katrina Forrester

Historian and political theorist, author of In the Shadow of Justice.

Robert Nozick

Libertarian critic of Rawls.

Susan Moller Okin

Feminist critic of Rawls.

Michael Sandel

Communitarian critic of Rawls.

Allan Bloom

Conservative critic, known for The Closing of the American Mind.

H.L.A. Hart

Legal philosopher who influenced Rawls's ideas on justice as a social practice.

Justice as fairness

A foundational work in political philosophy that refines and expands on Rawls's theory of justice.

Justice as the First Virtue of Institutions

Justice is the fundamental principle in social institutions, must not be compromised for social efficiency or aggregate welfare.

Basic Structure of Society

Consists of major social, political, and economic institutions that shape citizens' rights and opportunities.

Justice as Fairness & The Original Position

Rawls reinterprets the social contract tradition using the original position, where individuals choose principles of justice behind a veil of ignorance.

Veil of Ignorance

Decision-makers do not know their social status, wealth, abilities, or personal values, ensuring impartial choices.

The Two Principles of Justice

Include the Equal Basic Liberties Principle and the Difference Principle & Fair Equality of Opportunity.

Equal Basic Liberties Principle

Every individual must have equal basic rights, such as freedom of speech, religion, and political liberties.

Difference Principle

Economic and social inequalities are only justifiable if they benefit the least advantaged.