Social Interaction

3 components of a prejudice

Beliefs, Emotions, Predisposition to act

Beliefs

Stereotypes (generalizations about a group)

Emotions

Hostility, envy, fear

Predisposition to act

Discrimination (behavioral expression)

Ingroup

The group you belong to or identify with (“us”)

Outgroup

Any group you don't belong to or see as different (“them”)

Ethnocentrism

the universal tendency to view one’s own group (ingroup) as superior to others (outgroups).

Scapegoating & how is it related to prejudice

• Blaming an outgroup for one’s problems.

• It boosts self-esteem and provides an emotional outlet for frustration.

• Example: blaming immigrants for economic issues.

What cognitive process contributes to prejudice and why

• Categorization: Our brain simplifies the world by grouping people.

• Leads to stereotyping and ignoring individual differences.What role does observational learning play in prejudice

Observational Learning in prejudice

• Prejudices are learned by observing role models, media, and society.

• If parents/peers hold biased views, children may adopt them.

Authoritarianism

• A personality trait marked by strict adherence to conventional values, submission to authority, and intolerance.

• Strong predictor of prejudicial attitudes. Often passed down through generations.

Implicit prejudice

• Unconscious bias or negative associations toward a group, even if one claims to be non-prejudiced.

• Detected using tools like the Implicit Association Test (IAT).

Key causes of terrorism from a psychological perspective

• Lack of democracy, marginalization

• Religious absolutism (death-transcending belief systems)

• Economic/social deprivation

• Personal resentment toward authority

• Outgroup scapegoating

• Recruitment thrives in countries like Somalia, Syria, Pakistan, Nigeria, etc.

3 strategies reduce prejudice effectively

• Increase cooperative contact – Shared goals between rival groups

• Heal thyself – Address insecurity and low self-esteem

• Societal change – Reduce poverty, promote democracy and equity

Altruism

• Unselfish concern for the welfare of others.

• Helping others without expecting anything in return.

Evolutionary roots of altruism

• Darwin: Tribes with the most sympathetic members were more likely to survive and thrive.

• Altruism is tied to caregiving systems crucial for infant survival.

Bystander apathy

• When individuals are less likely to help in an emergency if others are present.

• First studied after the Kitty Genovese murder in 1964 (Queens, NYC).bystander effect

Bystander effect

• The diffusion of responsibility when many people are around.

• Each person assumes someone else will take action.

What are the 5 key factors influencing bystander intervention?

• Interpretation – Is this really an emergency?

• Diffused responsibility – Will someone else take care of it?

• Compassion – Do I value helping?

• Self-efficacy – Do I know what to do to help?

• Cost – Will helping embarrass or endanger me?

What factors increase the likelihood of friendship and romantic attraction?

• Proximity – Physical closeness increases interaction.

• Familiarity – “Mere exposure effect” = more exposure leads to more liking.

• Physical attractiveness – Major influence on first impressions.

• Similarity – Shared values, interests, age, education, intelligence, race, economic status.

Halo effect

• The assumption that attractive people also have other positive qualities (e.g. intelligence, kindness).

• “What is beautiful is good.”

Social exchange model of romantic attraction

• We seek relationships with the best cost-benefit ratio.

• Stay when benefits outweigh costs.

What is the evolutionary model of mate selection

• Men: Prefer youth and physical attractiveness (fertility cues).

• Women: Prefer status and resources (provision and protection).

• Evolutionary psychology explains mating preferences based on reproductive success

3 components of love in Sternberg’s Triangular Theory

• Intimacy – Emotional closeness, sharing, support

• Passion – Physical arousal, chemistry

• Commitment – Decision to stay in the relationship long-term

7 combinations of Stengberg’s 3 love components

• Liking = Intimacy only

• Infatuation = Passion only

• Empty Love = Commitment only

• Romantic Love = Intimacy + Passion

• Companionate Love = Intimacy + Commitment

• Fatuous Love = Passion + Commitment

• Consummate Love = All 3 (ideal love)

How can we apply bystander intervention in real life

• Be aware of diffusion of responsibility.

• Take initiative—don’t assume someone else will act.

• Cultivate compassion and set the intention to help.

Reciprocity Effect

It refers to the tendency for people to like others who show that they like them.

Attitude alignment in relationships

A process where dating partners modify their attitudes to be more congruent over time.

What does the matching hypothesis propose

People are more likely to select romantic partners who are approximately equal in physical attractiveness.

Similarity principle in attraction

People are generally attracted to others who are similar to themselves in attitudes, beliefs, values, and background.

Physical Attractiveness

It is a key determinant and heavily influences first impressions.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger, 1957)

When people hold contradictory cognitions (e.g., beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors), they experience an unpleasant psychological tension (dissonance).

What drives attitude change according to Festinger’s theory

Inconsistency among one’s attitudes and/or behaviors—this inconsistency creates discomfort (dissonance), leading to attitude change to restore internal harmony.

What emotional state is associated with cognitive dissonance?

An unpleasant state of psychological tension, which people are motivated to resolve.

What are some ways people reduce cognitive dissonance?

1. Change the behavior (stop doing the thing)

2. Change the attitude (convince themselves it’s fine)

3. Add consonant cognitions (justify with new beliefs)

4. Minimize the importance of the conflict

5. Deny responsibility for the inconsistency

What was the aim of Festinger & Carlsmith's 1959 study?

To see how cognitive dissonance could lead to attitude change when people are inadequately justified for lying.

What did participants in the Festinger & Carlsmith study do?

• Participants completed a very boring task.

• Then, they were asked to lie to the next participant and say the task was fun.

• Some were paid $1, others $20 to lie.

Who reported the most favorable attitude toward the boring task, and why?

The $1 group—because they had insufficient external justification for lying, they internally changed their attitude to reduce dissonance (“Maybe the task wasn’t so bad…”).

Why didn’t the $20 group change their attitude?

They had sufficient external justification (money), so no dissonance—they lied, but knew it was “for the money.”

Stereotype

A belief that people have certain characteristics solely because of their membership in a particular group.

Illusory Correlation

The tendency to overestimate how often two traits, events, or categories occur together, even when they don’t actually co-occur that frequently.

Normative Influence

Conforming to social norms for fear of negative social consequences

Informational Influence

Looking to others for guidance about how to behave in ambiguous situations

Social Loafing

reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups compared with working by themselves

Group polarization

occurs when group discussion strengthens a group's dominant point of view

Groupthink

emphasis on concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision

Reciprocity norm

rule that we should pay back in kind what we receive from others

Lowball technique

getting someone to commit to a seemingly attractive proposition before its hidden costs are revealed

Attitude

positive or negative evaluation of objects of thought

Reactance

when people feel their freedom or access is being threatened — like thinking toilet paper would run out — so they overcompensate by hoarding it, even if it doesn’t make total logical sense.

Secure

“I’m comfortable with intimacy and autonomy.”

• Healthy balance of closeness and independence

• Usually from consistent, warm caregiving

Avoidant (Dismissive-Avoidant)

“I’m uncomfortable with closeness and prefer independence.”

• Suppresses emotions, avoids vulnerability

• Learned early that others were not reliable or emotionally available

• Keeps distance in relationships, values self-sufficiency

Anxious-Ambivalent (Preoccupied)

“I crave closeness but worry you don’t love me back.”

• Hyper-attuned to rejection

• Often clingy, jealous, and constantly seeking reassurance

• Develops from inconsistent or unpredictable caregiving

Fearful-Avoidant (Disorganized)

“I want closeness, but I’m terrified of it.”

• Combo of anxious and avoidant traits

• Often from trauma or abuse

• Push-pull dynamics, deep fear of being hurt