Psychology Final

Why is psychology considered a science?

Because it is systematic and empirical, utilizing scientific theory including hypotheses, theories, predictions, and safeguards against bias.

What is skepticism in the context of science?

Skepticism refers to approaching a scientific topic with an open mind and an evidence-based approach, always willing to change one's mind.

How does science differ from pseudoscience?

Pseudoscience consists of claims that seem scientific but lack safeguards against bias, usually with exaggerated claims and reliance on anecdotal evidence.

What is the purpose of good research design?

To avoid biases when evaluating information and to attempt to see the world, including the psychological world, as it really is.

What is the difference between observational research and casual observation?

Observational research is systematic and adheres to scientific methods, while casual observation lacks the rigor and controls of scientific research.

What does the principle of 'ruling out rival hypotheses' imply?

It means being willing to consider and evaluate alternative explanations for findings.

What is 'correlation does not equal causation'?

It emphasizes that just because two variables are related does not mean one causes the other.

What does 'falsifiability' refer to in scientific claims?

Falsifiability is the ability for a claim to be disproven or proven false.

What is 'replicability' in research?

It means that results should be provable by being replicated in future studies.

What is Occam's Razor?

A principle that suggests the simplest explanation is often the best when faced with multiple possibilities.

What are the goals of science?

To describe, explain, predict, and control events.

What is structuralism?

An early psychological framework aimed at identifying the basic elements of psychological experience, founded by Edward Titchener.

What method did structuralists primarily use?

Introspection, where trained observers reflect and report on their mental experiences.

What is functionalism in psychology?

A school of thought that focuses on the functions and adaptive purposes of psychological characteristics.

Who founded functionalism?

William James.

How does functionalism relate to evolutionary theory?

It is influenced by Darwin's ideas of natural selection, positing that psychological and behavioral characteristics are adaptive.

What is behaviorism?

The scientific study of observable behavior, focusing on the general laws of learning.

Who is considered the founder of behaviorism?

John B. Watson.

What is a key idea of behaviorism regarding thinking?

Thinking is a behavior caused by environmental factors; it does not cause behavior.

What is cognitivism?

The psychological perspective that emphasizes understanding thinking as central to understanding behavior.

What does cognitive psychology focus on?

Mental processes such as perception, attention, memory, language, and reasoning.

What is the emphasis of psychoanalysis?

It focuses on internal psychological processes that are often unconscious, driven by unconscious memories and drives.

Who proposed the psychoanalytic theory?

Sigmund Freud.

What is the purpose of case studies in psychological research?

To conduct an in-depth analysis of an individual or phenomenon, exploring its richness and depth.

What is a disadvantage of using case studies?

They cannot systematically test hypotheses and suffer from issues like observer bias.

What are surveys used for in psychology?

To gather information about people through questionnaires, examining traits, beliefs, opinions, and feelings.

What is a representative sample?

A subset of cases from a population that reflects its important characteristics.

What does reliability refer to in psychological measures?

The consistency of a measurement tool across different occasions.

What is the difference between internal and external validity?

Internal validity refers to the ability to draw cause-and-effect conclusions, while external validity refers to whether findings can be generalized to other contexts.

What are correlational designs used for?

To examine the extent to which two variables are associated without manipulating them.

What does the Pearson's R statistic measure?

The direction and strength of the linear relationship between two variables.

What is the difference between positive and negative correlations?

In a positive correlation, as one variable increases, the other does too; in a negative correlation, as one increases, the other decreases.

What do experiments allow researchers to do?

Make causal inferences by manipulating variables.

What is an independent variable?

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

What is a dependent variable?

The response measured to determine if the independent variable produced an effect.

What is a confounding variable?

Any variable other than the independent variable that might influence the dependent variable.

What is a placebo effect?

Improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement.

What is a double-blind experiment?

An experimental design where neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is in the experimental or control group.

What are the core ethical principles in psychological research?

Respect for persons, concern for welfare, and justice.

What does informed consent entail?

Participants must be informed about the study and make a voluntary decision to participate.

What is the purpose of debriefing in research?

To provide participants with additional information about the study after its completion and to address any negative feelings.

How is intelligence defined?

An abstract and hypothetical construct representing cognitive abilities.

What did Edward Boring say about intelligence?

'Intelligence is what the tests test.'

What did Sir Francis Galton link intelligence to?

Sensory capacity and abilities.

What is the significance of abstract thinking according to Binet and Simon?

It contributes greatly to intelligence and relates to one's ability to understand hypothetical concepts.

Who hypothesized the existence of general intelligence (g)?

Charles Spearman.

What is fluid intelligence?

The capacity to learn new ways of solving problems.

What is crystallized intelligence?

Accumulated knowledge of the world over time.

What are Gardner's multiple intelligences?

Different domains of intelligence, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential.

What is the Flynn Effect?

The gradual increase in IQ scores over generations, often linked to better education and nutrition.

What is the biopsychosocial model?

A framework that considers biological, psychological, and social factors influencing health.

What are the main components of personality according to the trait theories?

Enduring traits that influence behavior across various situations.

What is the Big Five Model?

A trait theory consisting of Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

What does the concept of groupthink imply?

A phenomenon where the desire for consensus results in poor decision-making.

What is the bystander effect?

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when other people are present.

What factors influence helping behavior?

Egotistic reasons, empathy, situational factors, individual differences, and social norms.

What does cognitive dissonance refer to?

Conflict that arises when attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent, leading to an uncomfortable tension.

What is the DSM?

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, providing criteria for diagnosing mental disorders.

What defines anxiety disorders?

Emotions of tension and worry that can sometimes be adaptive but can become maladaptive when excessive.

What characterizes major depressive disorder (MDD)?

Persistent low mood, loss of interest, and feelings of worthlessness.

How are personality disorders defined?

Enduring patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience that deviate from cultural expectations.

What is dissociative identity disorder (DID)?

A condition where a person exhibits multiple distinct identities or personality states.

What factors are involved in the biopsychosocial model?

Biological, psychological, and social influences on an individual's health and behavior.

What defines childhood disorders?

Disorders impacting children, such as Autism Spectrum Disorders and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

What are the critical periods in development?

Timeframes during which specific skills or abilities must develop for normal functioning.

What does the term 'nature-nurture debate' refer to?

The discussion regarding the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to human development.

What is the purpose of intelligence testing?

To assess cognitive abilities, predict academic/work success, and diagnose intellectual disabilities or giftedness.

What is the IQ formula?

Originally defined as mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100.

What are the limitations of using IQ tests?

They have been misused historically, can reflect biases, and may not accurately measure all forms of intelligence.

What were the historical perspectives on mental illness?

Supernatural, somatogenic, and psychogenic theories providing different causal explanations.

What is the 'dark tetrad' in personality psychology?

A model that includes narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism.

What is the importance of respect for persons in research ethics?

It emphasizes the need to respect individual autonomy and protect those with diminished autonomy.

What does social influence encompass?

The ways people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by actual or perceived presence of others.

What is 'internal attribution' in social psychology?

Assigning behavior to personal disposition or traits.

What is 'external attribution' in social psychology?

Assigning behavior to situational factors.

What does deindividuation refer to?

Loss of self-awareness in groups leading to atypical behavior.

What is the purpose of observational learning?

Learning behaviors by observing the actions of others.

What is a confounding variable?

An extraneous variable that correlates with both the dependent and independent variables.

What is the purpose of random assignment in experiments?

To ensure each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any experimental group.

What does the term 'self-actualization' refer to?

The realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potential, often considered as a personal goal.

What is the purpose of qualitative research methods?

To gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations behind behaviors.

How does cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) function?

By addressing negative patterns of thought and behavior to improve mental health.

What is the purpose of ethical principles in psychological research?

To protect participants and ensure the integrity of the research process.

What does 'informed consent' protect?

It protects participants' autonomy by ensuring they understand what their participation entails before agreeing.

What are the symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)?

Excessive worry about various aspects of life, restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbances.

What characterizes panic disorder?

Recurrent unexpected panic attacks, persistent concern about having more attacks, and changes in behavior related to the attacks.

What defines social anxiety disorder?

Intense fear or anxiety about social situations where one may be embarrassed or judged.

What are the main features of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?

Presence of obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors performed to alleviate anxiety).

What is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?

A condition that can develop after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, characterized by intrusive memories, avoidance of reminders of the trauma, negative changes in thoughts and mood, and heightened arousal.

What are the hallmark symptoms of major depressive disorder?

Depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure, weight changes, sleep disturbances, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, and difficulty concentrating.

What defines bipolar disorder?

Characterized by episodes of mood swings ranging from depressive lows to manic highs.

What is the primary characteristic of schizophrenia?

Distorted thinking and perception, including symptoms like hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and impaired functioning.

What are borderline personality disorder symptoms?

Intense and unstable emotions, impulsive behavior, unstable relationships, and a fluctuating self-image.

What defines attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?

A neurodevelopmental disorder marked by persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning.