Biology and Behavior (1)

Neuropsychology

is the study of the connection between the nervous system and behavior. It most often focuses on the functions of various brain regions.

Afferent

Sensory neurons

Efferent

Motor neurons

Reflex Arcs

Use the ability of interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain.

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Most cranial and spinal nerves

Somatic

Voluntary part of the Peripheral Nervous System

Autonomic

Automatic part of the Peripheral Nervous System

Parasympathetic

Rest-and-digest part of the Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic

Fight-or-flight part of the Autonomic Nervous System

Hindbrain

contains the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation.

Midbrain

contains the inferior and superior colliculi.

Forebrain

contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex.

Thalamus

a relay station for sensory information.

Hypothalamus

maintains homeostasis and integrates with the endocrine system through the hypophyseal portal system that connects it to the anterior pituitary.

Basal Ganglia

smoothen movements and help maintain postural stability.

Limbic System

contains the septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus, controls emotion and memory.

Septal Nuclei

involved with feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior, and addiction.

Amygdala

controls fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

consolidates memories and communicates with other parts of the limbic system through an extension called the fornix.

Cerebral Cortex

is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.

Frontal Lobe

controls executive function, impulse control, long-term planning, motor function, and speech production.

Parietal Lobe

controls sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain; spatial processing; orientation; and manipulation.

Occipital Lobe

controls visual processing.

Temporal Lobe

controls sound processing, speech perception, memory, and emotion.

Left

In most individuals, the ______ hemisphere is the dominant hemisphere for language.

Neurotransmitters

are released by neurons and carry a signal to another neuron or effector (a muscle fiber or a gland).

Acetylcholine

is used by the somatic nervous system (to move muscles), the parasympathetic nervous system, and the central nervous system (for alertness).

Dopamine

maintains smooth movements and steady posture.

Endorphins and Enkephalins

act as natural painkillers.

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

maintain wakefulness and alertness and mediate fight-or-flight responses. They cause physiological changes associated with the sympathetic nervous system.

Epinephrine

tends to act as a hormone

Norepinephrine

tends to act more classically as a neurotransmitter

GABA and Glycine

act as brain "stabilizers."

Glutamate

acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Serotonin

modulates mood, sleep patterns, eating patterns, and dreaming.

Endocrine System

is tied to the nervous system through the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary, as well as a few other hormones.

Cortisol

is a stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex.

Testosterone and Estrogen

mediate libido

Testosterone

also increases aggressive behavior

Adrenal Cortex

Testosterone and Estrogen are released by the ____________

Testes

In males, the _______ also produce testosterone.

Ovaries

In females, the _________ also produce estrogen.

Adrenal Medulla

Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by the __________

Nature vs. Nurture

is a classic debate regarding the relative contributions of genetics and environment to an individual's traits. For most traits, both nature and nurture play a role. The relative effects of each can be studied.

Family Studies

look at the relative frequency of a trait within a family compared to the general population.

Twin Studies

compare concordance rates between monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins.

Adoption Studies

compare similarities between children who were adopted and their adoptive parents, relative to similarities with their biological parents.

Neurulation

The nervous system develops through ___________, in which the notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over, creating a neural tube topped with neural crest cells.

Neural Tube

becomes the central nervous system (CNS).

Neural Crest Cells

spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues.

Primitive Reflexes

exist in infants and should disappear with age. Most serve (or served, in earlier times) a protective role. They can reappear in certain nervous system disorders.

Rooting Reflex

infants turn their heads toward anything that brushes the cheek.

Moro Reflex

the infant extends the arms, then slowly retracts them and cries in response to a sensation of falling.

Babinski Reflex

the big toe is extended and the other toes fan in response to the brushing of the sole of the foot.

Grasping Reflex

infants grab anything put into their hands.

Head to toe; core to periphery

Gross and fine motor abilities progress ____________ and _____________.

Parent; self; other

Social skills shift from ______-oriented to ______-oriented to _______-oriented.

Language

__________ skills become increasingly complex.