American Foreign Policy Exam 2

NSC Statutory Members

Established by the National Security Act of 1947, these are the core officials required by law to attend NSC meetings: The President, Vice President, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, and Secretary of Energy.

NSC Principals Committee

Created during the George H.W. Bush administration (1989), this is the senior-level interagency forum (excluding the President) used to deliberate on policy before it reaches the full NSC

Goldwater-Nichols Act

A 1986 law that represents the most significant reorganization of the Department of Defense since 1947; it increased the power of the Chairman of the JCS and mandated "jointness" among military branches.

Attentive Public

A term gaining prominence in the 1950s (via Gabriel Almond) referring to the 10–15% of the population that is actually informed and interested in foreign policy issues.

Heritage Foundation

Founded in 1973, a highly influential conservative think tank that provides policy research and was a key architect of the "Reagan Revolution."

Military-Industrial Complex

A term popularized by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in his 1961 Farewell Address, warning against the informal alliance between the military and the arms industry.

Think Tanks

Research organizations (like Brookings, founded 1916, or Heritage) that analyze and advocate for specific public policies and provide expertise to government officials.

Interest Groups

Organized bodies of people or corporations that seek to influence government policy to their benefit (e.g., the NRA or Sierra Club).

War Powers Resolution

Passed in 1973 over a presidential veto, this federal law requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of committing troops and limits their stay to 60–90 days without congressional authorization.

Council on Foreign Relations

Founded in 1921, an influential non-partisan think tank and publisher of Foreign Affairs that brings together government officials and business leaders.

Single-Issue Public Interest Groups

Organizations that focus their lobbying and resources on one specific area of concern (e.g., the National Right to Life or Greenpeace).

US CIS

Created in 2003 as part of the DHS formation, the agency responsible for processing immigration and naturalization applications.

Imperial Presidency

A concept popularized in Arthur Schlesinger Jr.’s 1973 book, describing a presidency that exceeds constitutional limits, particularly in war-making and executive privilege.

Iran-Contra Affair

A political scandal during the Reagan administration (1985–1987) involving secret arms sales to Iran to fund "Contra" rebels in Nicaragua in violation of the Boland Amendment.

Office of Management and Budget

Originally the Bureau of the Budget (1921) and renamed in 1970, it is the largest office in the EOP, managing the federal budget and agency performance.

National Economic Council

Established by President Clinton in 1993, this body coordinates domestic and international economic policymaking for the President.

Joint Chiefs of Staff

Established formally in 1949, this body consists of the senior uniformed leaders of each military branch who serve as the principal military advisors to the President.

CIA

Created by the National Security Act of 1947, the primary agency for gathering foreign intelligence and conducting covert operations.

FSOs (Foreign Service Officers)

Established in their modern form by the Rogers Act of 1924, these are the professional diplomats who man U.S. embassies and consulates.

Foreign Agricultural Service

Established in 1953, this USDA agency promotes U.S. agricultural exports and manages international food aid.

Plausible Denial

A concept originating in the 1950s (and formalized in the 1974 Hughes-Ryan Act) where the chain of command is structured so a President can deny knowledge of covert or illegal activities.

Department of Homeland Security

Created in 2002 (operational in 2003) in response to the 9/11 attacks to consolidate U.S. domestic security and emergency management.

NSC 68

A top-secret policy paper from 1950 that advocated for a massive military buildup and a policy of containment against the Soviet Union.

National Security Agency

Established by President Truman in 1952, it is responsible for global signals intelligence (SIGINT) and protecting U.S. communications.

AIPAC

Formed in 1963, a major lobbying group that advocates for a strong U.S.-Israel relationship.

DNI

A position created by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 to serve as the head of the entire U.S. Intelligence Community.

Food for Peace

Also known as Public Law 480, signed by President Eisenhower in 1954, it uses U.S. agricultural surpluses as humanitarian and developmental aid.

ICE

Established in 2003 under DHS, this agency enforces federal laws concerning border control, customs, and immigration within the U.S. interior.

Blowback

A term coined by the CIA in a 1954 report (regarding the 1953 Iranian coup) to describe the unintended and often negative consequences of covert operations.