History and theories of intelligence

Entity theory

intelligence is fixed at birth: either are or not

Incremental theory

intelligence can grow and develop

Conscientiousness

Dimension of the ‘big 5’ theory of personality

Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)

• UK

• Intelligence heritable

• Nature v Nurture

• How to measure intelligence

• pioneer in Eugenics

Alfred Binet (1857-1911)

• France

• Differences in intelligence

• Used associationism

• First Intelligence test: Binet-Simon scale 1911

• Compared to age group

• Mental age

Lewis Terman (1877-1956)

• U.S

• New items, revise norms of Binet-Simon

• Larger samples (1000 compared to 50)

• Stanford-Binet in 1916

William Stern

Used ratio of real age to mental age to develop concept of intelligence quotient (IQ)

Robert Yerkes

• U.S

• Speedy tests for soldiers

• Army Alpha: literate groups

• Army Beta: less than 6yrs speaking English or poor reader

• 1.75 million tested

Charles Spearman

• U.K (& Germany)

• Factor analysis

• General intelligence (‘g’)

David Weschler

• U.S (& U.K)

• Weschler-Bellevue scale (1939)

• WAIS

• WISC (1955)

John Raven

• Scotland

• Raven’s progressive matrices (1938)

• Free from cultural influence

Eugenics movement

• 20th century

• Galton: selective marriage, white superiority, supported eugenics (survival of the fittest)

• Terman: Supported eugenicist ideas and belief intelligence was inherited

• 1922-  Model Eugenical Sterilization Law published

Model Eugenical Sterilization Law

Mandatory sterilisation of: feeble-minded, insane, criminal, epileptic, blind, deformed, dependent (e.g., homeless, orphans)

Buck versus Bell

• 1927

• Carrie (IQ of 9yrs) baby given infant IQ test: lower than normal

• State of Virginia decided on compulsory sterilisation of Carrie’s daughter

• U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favour of sterilisation

How many states had sterilisation laws

29 U.S states

How many were sterilised between 1941 and 1943

42, 000

Places with eugenics programmes

Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland

How many people were sterilised in Germany 1933-1939

20,000

When did Eugenics fall into dispute

Post-WW2

Herrnstein & Murray (1994)

• The bell curve

• Argued cognitive ability no less than 40%, no more than 80% heritable

• g exists and individuals differ

• IQ is (mostly) stable over lifespan

• A cognitive elite exists: social group, high intelligence, good chance life success (Predict higher intelligence will be top of U.S. class system)

• Bottom end: poverty, unemployed, welfare dependency, crime

• IQ tests are not biased

Richard Lynn (1996)

Argued for genetic heritability of intelligence

Lynn (2001)

Claimed genetic deterioration in modern populations (i.e., intelligence lower); IVF should be genetically assessed and selected for desirable qualities

Explicit theories of intelligence

Devised by professionals

Implicit theories of intelligence

Constructs everyone hold implicitly

Rickert, Meras, and Witkow (2014) findings

Strength of entity theory positively associated with self-handicapping behaviours and procrastination

Reasons for implicit theories

• important

• generate formal theories

• investigate if explicit theory is wrong

• inform theoretics/ psychological constructs

Sternberg, Conway, Ketron, & Bernstein (1981) three dimensions of intelligence

• Practical problem-solving

• Verbal ability

• Social competence

Sternberg, 1985: 6 aspects to intelligence

• Practical problem-solving ability

• Verbal ability

• Intellectual balance and integration

• Goal orientation and attainment

• Contextual intelligence

• Fluid thought

Yang and Sternberg (1997): 5 factors

1. General cognitive factor of intelligence (problem solving)

2. Interpersonal intelligence (understanding others’ feelings)

3. Intrapersonal intelligence (own life philosophy)

4. Intellectual self-assertion (puts own interest first)

5. Intellectual self-effacement (likes to think quietly)

Yang and Sternberg (1997) conclusions

• Taiwanese conception of intelligence more akin to older adults

• Greater emphasis on practical aspects of intelligence outside the U.S.

• Taiwanese results nearer to broader theories of intelligence

Bråten, Lien and Nietfield (2017): Cognitive Reflection Test:

• Three conditions: 1) learning & motivation; 2) innate ability; 3) control

• Results - No significant difference between conditions

Limitations of cognitive reflection test

• Students hadn’t listened to instructions

• Educational science course - students had learned related theory

• Low attendance so could not explore gender (fewer ♂)

Louis Thurstone (1887-1955)

• U.S

• First multi-factor analysis of intelligence

• correlates of g not some central factor

• Intelligence from 7 primary mental abilities

7 primary mental abilities

1. Word fluency

2. Verbal comprehension

3. Number

4. Spatial visualisation

5. Association/associative memory

6. Perceptual speed

7. Reasoning

Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)

• U.K (later U.S)

• Factor analysis of many traits reduced to 16 traits 1949

• Fluid and crystalised intelligence

• Gf: capacity to reason; abstract/free from cultural influences

• Gc: knowledge acquired from experience and interaction with world

J.P. Guildford

• U.S

• Structure of intellect theory

• Three-dimensional model

• Combination of 150 abilities

Howard Gardner (1943-)

• Multiple intelligences

• Intelligence is a sum of processes (9)

Multiple intelligences

• Linguistic

• Logical-mathematical

• Spatial

• Musical

• Bodily kinaesthetic

• Interpersonal

• Intrapersonal

• Naturalist

• Existentialist

Sternberg (1949-)

• Triarchic theory

• Takes a cognitive approach

• 3 parts: componential, experiential, practical

Componential (analytic) sub-theory

Mental mechanisms that underpin intelligent behaviour: Meta-components, performance components and knowledge-acquisition components

Contextual (practical) sub-theory

How mental mechanisms interact with world to demonstrate intelligent behaviour: adaptation, shaping and selection

Experiential (creative) sub-theory

How experience interacts with internal/external world to form intelligent behaviours: Novelty and automation

Bar-On types of emotional intelligence

• Intrapersonal

• Interpersonal

• Adaptability

• Stress management

• General mood