Honors Physics Review Notes: Electric Forces, Circuits, Magnetism, SHM, Waves, Optics (Vocabulary)

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering electric forces, circuits, magnetism, SHM, waves, and optics topics from the notes.

Like charges?

Charges of the same sign push away from each other; like charges repel.

Opposite charges?

Charges of opposite signs attract each other; unlike charges pull toward one another.

Charge by contact

Charging a neutral object by direct contact with a charged object, causing electrons to move and both objects to end with the same type of charge.

Polarization

A separation of charges within a neutral object due to an external electric field, without direct contact.

Grounding

Connecting a object to the earth so excess charge can flow away; charges that leave may not return when the path is removed.

Charge by Induction

Charging a neutral object without direct contact by using a nearby charged object to polarize the object and then removing the ground.

what happens to the charge when charging by contact

the neutral object ends up with the same sign of charge as the charging object.

Coulomb's Law

The force between two point charges F ∝ (|q1 q2|)/r^2; direction depends on charge signs (attraction or repulsion).

Electric Force

The force exerted by electric charges on each other, measured in Newtons; follows an inverse-square distance relationship.

Electric Field

The region around a charge where another charge experiences force; direction is the path a positive test charge would move.

Direction of force on a positive test charge

moves outwards

Uniform Electric Field

An electric field with constant magnitude and direction at all points, often between parallel plates.

Electric Potential Energy

Energy stored due to a charge's position in an electric field; scalar; changes as the charge moves within the field.

Work

Energy required to move a charge against an electrical force; work is done when moving against the field.

Electric Potential

Electric potential energy per unit charge; measured in volts (V); at infinity, potential is defined as 0 V.

Equipotential lines

Lines where the electric potential is the same; are perpendicular to electric field lines.

Electric Potential at infinity is 0

Convention that the potential far away from all charges is zero.

Resistance

Property of a material that resists current flow; measured in Ohms (Ω).

Current

Flow of electric charges through a conductor; measured in Amperes (A).

Ohm's Law

V = IR; relationship between voltage, current, and resistance.

Series Resistors

the equivalent resistance is the sum: Req = R1 + R2 + … + Rn.

Parallel Resistors

1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + … + 1/Rn; current divides, voltage stays the same.

Conductor

Material with low resistance that allows current to flow easily.

Insulator

Material with high resistance that impedes current flow.

Longer means greater resistance

Increasing the length of a conductor increases its resistance.

Wider means less resistance

Increasing cross-sectional area decreases resistance.

Conventional current

Hypothetical flow of positive charges from positive to negative terminal; electrons actually move opposite to this direction.

Electron flow

Actual motion of electrons, from the negative to the positive terminal.

Current in series is the same

In a series circuit, the same current passes through every component.

Voltage in series divides

the total voltage is distributed among components.

Voltage in parallel is the same

the voltage across each branch is equal.

Current in parallel divides

the total current splits among branches according to resistance.

Power

Rate of energy transfer; formulas include P = IV, P = I^2R, and P = V^2/R.

Light bulbs transform energy

Electrical energy is transformed into light and heat (thermal energy) in a bulb.

Magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

A magnetic field forms circular lines around the wire; direction given by the Right Hand Rule (often called the Right Fist Rule).

Magnetic force on a moving charge

A moving charge in a magnetic field experiences a force perpendicular to both velocity and field; direction given by the Right Hand Rule.

Lenz's Law

Induced current will flow such that its magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.

Lenz's Right Hand Rule

A practical version of Lenz's Rule for determining the direction of induced current: thumb shows initial/final field direction, fingers show induced current direction.

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Periodic motion with restoring force proportional to displacement from equilibrium.

Period (T)

Time required for one full cycle of SHM.

Frequency (f)

Number of cycles per second; measured in Hz.

Equilibrium

The position where net force on the object is zero.

Displacement (x)

Distance and direction from equilibrium.

Amplitude

Maximum displacement from equilibrium.

Hooke's Law

F = -kx for an ideal spring, where k is the spring constant.

Spring Constant (k)

A measure of a spring's stiffness in N/m.

Energy in SHM

Kinetic energy and potential energy continually interchange; at equilibrium KE is max, PE is min; at max displacement PE is max, KE is min.

Crest

The highest point of a transverse wave.

Trough

The lowest point of a transverse wave.

Wavelength

Distance between successive crests or troughs.

Transverse wave

Wave where particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.

Longitudinal wave

Wave where particle motion is parallel to the direction of wave travel.

Wave Pulse

A single, non-periodic disturbance in a medium.

Standing Wave

A wave pattern formed by two waves of the same frequency traveling in opposite directions, producing nodes and antinodes.

Interference

Superposition of two or more waves; energy combines and waves continue in original directions.

Constructive interference

Waves combine to produce a larger amplitude.

Destructive interference

Waves combine to produce a smaller amplitude; can cancel out.

Doppler Effect

Change in observed frequency due to relative motion between source and observer.

Refraction

Bending of waves as they pass between media with different speeds.

Snell's Law

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2; relates incident angle to refracted angle through indices of refraction.

Critical Angle

Incidence angle at which refraction angle is 90°, leading to total internal reflection.

Ray Optics

Study of light using rays to model reflection and refraction by mirrors and lenses.

Mirror

A surface that reflects light; can be concave (converging) or convex (diverging).

Lens

Transparent medium that refracts light; can be convex (converging) or concave (diverging).

Thin Lens Formula

1/f = 1/do + 1/di; relates focal length, object distance, and image distance.

Magnification (M)

M = hi/ho = - di/do; indicates image size and inversion (negative means inverted).

Focal length (f)

Distance from lens/mirror to focal point; negative for diverging optics.

Real image

An image formed by converging rays; can be projected on a screen.

Virtual image

An image formed by diverging rays; cannot be projected on a screen.

Upright image

An image with the same orientation as the object; typically virtual.

Inverted image

An image inverted relative to the object; typically real.

Converging mirror

A concave mirror that brings rays to a focus (converges).

Diverging mirror

A convex mirror that causes rays to spread apart (diverges).

Converging lens

A convex lens that focuses rays to a point (converges).

Diverging lens

A concave lens that spreads rays apart (diverges).

Negative focal point

Diverging optics have a negative focal length according to sign conventions.

Negative magnification

Sign convention where negative M indicates inverted image.

Negative distance

A negative image distance indicates the image is on the same side as the object (often virtual in mirrors/lenses).

what happens during polarization? to negative and positive charges

negative - electrons in the conductor are repelled, leaving positive charges close to the rod

positive - electrons will be attracted to the rod

how will the ground act with a positive object?

as a source that will provide electrons

how will the ground act with a negative object?

as a sink that will absorb electrons

what happens to the electrons during polarization?

opposite charges will gather near the charged object and like charges will move away from it

what does newton’s third law say in relation to the electric force?

between two charges, each experiences a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction

what happens when the charge doubles?

the force will also double

what will happen if the distance increases?

the force will decrease by a square of it

what is the direction of a negative charge in an electric field?

it will move inwards

what is radial symmetry regarding the electric field?

it is the strongest closest to the charge

what happens if the distance increases?

the field will decrease by 1/r²

what is the potential energy with opposite signs?

u < 0

what is the potential energy with same signs?

u > 0

regarding electric potential how do positive charges move?

they naturally move from high potential to low potential (downhill)

regarding electric potential how do negative charges move?

they naturally move from low potential to high potential (uphill)