Studied by 3 people
empiricism
The view that knowledge is obtained only through observation.
scientific attitude
A mindset that promotes critical thinking and a willingness to question established ideas and explore new ones.
scientific inquiry
Answering questions using evidence and experimentation.
critical thinking
Thinking that examines assumptions, appraises sources, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
percieving order in random events
The tendency to find patterns in random sequences.
overconfidence
The tendency to think that you know more than you do.
hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
non-experimental method
A way of studying subjects that involves observing and describing behavior.
naturalistic observation
A non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in the hope of revealing universal principles.
theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
case study
An in-depth analysis of individuals or small groups.
hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
falsifiability
The possibility that an idea, a hypothesis, or a theory can be disproven by observation or experiment.
operational definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.
population
All those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn.
to replicate
To repeat the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.
survey
A non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
scientific method
A self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis.
peer reviewers
Scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy.
random sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
social desirability bias
Bias that results from people responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes.
self-report bias
Bias that results when people report their behavior inaccurately.
sampling bias
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.
confounding variable
In an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.
regression toward the mean
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.
single-blind procedure
An experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo.
random assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the groups.
independent variable
In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated.
dependent variable
In an experiment, the outcome that is measured.
correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
illusory correlation
Perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.
control group
In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment.
variable
Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.
validity
The extent to which a test or an experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
placebo effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone.
experimenter bias
Bias caused when researchers unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs.
correlation coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to +1.00).
double-blind procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.
experimental group
In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment.
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on another variable (the dependent variable)
By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors..
scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
debriefing
The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
informed consent
Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
qualitative research
A research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers.
quantitative research
A research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data.
median
The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
skewed distribution
A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.
percentile rank
The percentage of scores that are lower than a given score.
standard deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
statistical significance
A statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming no difference exists between the populations being studied.
descriptive statistics
Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
confidence interval
A range of values that likely includes the population’s true mean value.
mode
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
histogram
A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.
meta-analysis
A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.
inferential statistics
Numerical data that allow one to generalize (infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population).
normal curve
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data.
effect size
The strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other.
range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
central nervous system
The brain and spinal cord.
interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
nerves
Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs.
nervous system
The body’s electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
sympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.
sensory (afferent) neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sense receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
autonomic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).
motor (efferent) neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
peripheral nervous system
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
somatic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
parasympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
reflex
A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex.
gilal cells
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
antagonist
A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
cell body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
dendrites
a neuron’s branching extensions that receive and combine messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
endocrine system
the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
hormone
chemical messenger that is made by the endocrine glands, travels through the bloodstream, and affects other tissues
all-or-none response
a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
reputake
a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
neurotransmitter
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
refractory period
in neural processing, a brief resting pause, which occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state
axon
neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
addiction
compulsive substance use that continues despite harmful consequences
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perception and mood
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect
stimulants
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
hallucinogens
psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
opioids
depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
depressants
___________ reduce neural activity and slow body functions
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
barbiturates
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
substance use disorder
a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior
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