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as cell divides to form gametes
copies of the genetic info are made
cell divides twice to form 4 games, each with a single set of chromosomes
all gametes, are genetically identical from each other
negative affects of GM
effect on the populations of wild flowers and insects, potentially reduce farmland biodiversity
some feel the effects of eating GM crops in human health, haven’t been fully explored
Gm crops are infertile, genes could spread to wild plants, leading to infertility in other species
mutations
base substitue, change one amino acids in the sequence, or change none, could code for the same amino acid
genotype
the combination of alleles an individual has
phenotype
the physical characteristics that are observed in the individual
allele
different forms of the gene
DNA
four different nucleotide, order of bases control the order in which
mixture of asexual and sexual reproduction
malaria parasites reproduce by spores, and sexually to give variation,
many plant produce seeds sexually, but also reproduce asexually by runners such as strawberry plants or bulbs, daffodils
many fungi reproduce asexually by reports, or sexually to give variation
adrenaline
adrenal glands
respiratory and circulatory system
increase heart and breathing rate flow of blood to muscles, conversion to glycogen to glucose
ember screening
IVF, remove cell from each embryo, analyse its genes, detect genetic disorders, bad alleles would by destroyed
get DNA from embryo in womb and test for disorder
evolution
occurs due to mutation
mutations occur, provide variation
if mutations provides advantage, the organism is more like to survive to breeding age
mutations wil then be passed into offspring
over many generations, frequency of mutations will increase within the population
speciation
so different that they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring, new species
relay neurone
in the spinal cord
benefits of cloning
understanding which genes are linked to inherited diseases and can lead to treatment,
search for genes linked to different types of diseases
use to trace migration patterns from the past
genome
is the entire genitic material of that organism
evolution
change in the inherited characteristic of a population over time through a process of natural selection, may result in the formation of a new species
organisms in a species show wide range of variation
most suited, more likely to survive to breeding age
characteristic then passed on
mendel
mid 19th century
carried out breeding experiments on plants
observation, the inheritance of each characteristic is determined by units that are passed on to descendants
used Smoot, wrinkedl, green and yellow peas, observed offspring to see which characteristic they inherited
determined by hereditary units, one from each plant, passed onto offspring unchanged, dominate or recessive and cannot be mixed together
problems with mutations
occur continuously, most don’t alter protein or only slightly,
few, code for an altered protein with a different shape, enzyme may no longer fit substrate binding site or structural protein may lose its strength, useless at providing structure and support now
evolutionary trees
method sued by scientists to show how they believe organisms are related
use current classification data for living organisms and fossil data for extinct organisms
as evidence of internal strcuurree more developed due to improvements in microscopes and understanding of biochemical processes progressed, new models of classification were proposed
fosils
from parts of organisms that haven’t decayed because one or more of the conditions are absent
when parts of the organism are replaced by minerals as they decay
as preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows and rootlet traces
coding
determined the protein and their activite
non coding
determines which genes are expressed, switch genes on and off
Note 
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