Global systems and governance aqa a level geography paper 2

Outline the term globalisation

Globalisation is the process of the world becoming more interconnected through interdependence of countries around the world. It's not a new process but it has rapidly increased due to time space compression. Globalisation is split into 4 dimensions: social, economic, cultural and political

Explain the dimensions of globalisation

Globalisation is split into 4 categories: economic, social, political and cultural which each link to different flows and processes that connect people and places globally. Economic globalisation is the interconnection of capital and trade. Political globalisation is the interconnection of governments internationally. Social globalisation is the global interconnectedness of people. Cultural globalisation is the interconnection of cultures around the world.

Outline the flows of capital as a dimension of globalisation

Flows of capital is the movement of money internationally. This can be achieved through foreign direct investment which is when TNCs invest in other countries through infrastructure and businesses. Another flow of capital is remittances. These are when migrants send money back to their home country. A further flow of capital is repatriation of profits. This is when profits made by a TNC are sent back to the country of origin. This shows unequal financial flows

Explain the flows of labour as a dimension of globalisation

Flows of labour is the transfer of people globally. International migration is when people move across borders for employment, usually from periphery and semi periphery economies to core economies. One reason for this is for work. Highly skilled workers such as doctors migrate to developed countries whereas unskilled workers move to peripheral and semi peripheral countries to do more manual labour such as construction. This can reinforce economic patterns of core, semi periphery and periphery economies

Outline the flows of products as dimensions of globalisation

Flows of products is the movement of goods globally. In the past, these were developed and manufactured in core economies however, a global shift to manufacturing in Asia and semi peripheral economies occurred. This is due to cheaper manufacturing and labour available there. This has made the world more interconnected as transnational corporations manage production and distribute products across multiple countries worldwide wide. Another aspect is containerisation this has made transporting goods easier due to standardised shipping containers which can be placed on a ship, lorry or train. This has increased the volume and variety of goods traded internationally through the reduction of trade barriers and improved transport.

Explain the flows of services as a dimension of globalisation

Services are activities or actions that are provided by one party to another. These are increasingly traded globally. They are split into high level and low level services. High level are services such as banking and legal services, concentrated in core economies and global cities. Whereas low level services such as call centres for customer support are located in less developed countries and dispersed more globally. Many countries relocate services to other countries, this is offshoring. Outsourcing is when a business hires another business to achieve the same result.

Outline the flows of information as a dimension of globalisation

Information is data (financial) or news. This is now transported through emails, social media and the internet. This has increased globalisation as information is more globally accessible and can be shared/ accessed instantly

Outline global marketing as a dimension of globalisation

Global marketing is promoting and selling products or services around the world. Through globalisation, the world is viewed as one market. This enables global brands to sell around the world, such as McDonald's. Becuase they can sell large quantities of their products, economies of scale are enabled and comparative advantages against other businesses can be put in place such as glocalising the menu e.g. McDonald's having different menu items in India.

Explain patterns of production as a dimension of globalisation

In the past, production primarily occurred in high income regions such as Detroit, USA, where cars were manufactured. However due to deindustrialisaiton in the core economies, there was a global shift leading to production in the present day occurring in semi peripheral countries such as china. In the future, production may return back to core economies, this could be due to presidential leaders in core economies wanting more 'homemade' products such as Trump increasing products such as cars made in the USA. Alternatively, we could se semi peripheral economies moving production to peripherial economies such as china investing in Africa.

Explain distribution as a dimension of globalisation

In the past products weren't distributed as much due to limited abilities and technology available. In the present day, distribution is large. This could be due to containerisation which has led to the standardised shipping containers which enable products to be transported by ship, trains and lorries in an easy and streamlined way.

Outline consumption as a dimension of globalisation

In the past products were mainly consumed in core economies as this is where products were manufactured and the countries could also afford the products. In the present day both core and semi peripheral countries consume products due to semi peripheral countries such as china having a growing middle class which can now afford products like core economies. In the future, more semi peripheral countries may consume more goods. This is due to rising populations in semi peripheral economies as well as rising incomes

Outline the factors of globalisation

Factors in globalisation are how globalisation has accelerated so quickly. This is due to the development of technology, relationships and systems of finance, transport, security, communications and management.

Explain the development of technologies as a factor of globalisation

Technology available has increased with stronger capabilities. This has led to the shrinking world effect, meaning that the world feels smaller as it is more interconnected. Because the world is more interconnected through technology, we can communicate and transport people and products more easily and quicker.

Outline developments of systems as a factor of globalisation

Transport systems have improved, such as the development of containerisation. This allows for goods to be shipped efficiently around the world. Communication systems have advanced, including the internet and mobile technology, making it easier to share information globally. Financial systems are now more connected, with instant transfers of money and global stock markets facilitating international trade and investment. Production systems have become more global, with TNCs organising manufacturing across multiple countries to reduce costs and increase efficiency.

Outline the development of financial systems as a factor of globalisation

Global financial systems govern flows of capital. Investors, governments, banks, companies and international organisations are part of the global financial system

Explain the development of transport systems as a factor of globalisation

Containerisation has made transporting goods faster, cheaper and more efficient by allowing large volumes to be moved in standard containers on ships, lorries and trains. Air travel has become quicker and more affordable. This has enabled the movement of people and goods across long distance, helping businesses to operate globally. High speed rail and road networks have improved connections between cities and ports, speeding up trade and supply chains.

Outline the development of transport relationships as a factor of globalisation

Global airline alliances have connected countries more closely, enabling smoother international travel. Partnerships between shipping containers have made global freight routes more efficient and coordinated. Improved trade agreements have strengthened transport links between nations. Increased cooperation in infrastructure projects like belt and road initiative has boosted global connectivity.

Explain the development of security technology as a factor of globalisation

Biometric passports and digital identity checks have improved international border control, enabling secure and efficient movement of people. Cybersecurity technology allows safe online transactions and protects global communication networks, helping businesses operate worldwide. Global tracking systems like GPS help monitor and secure international cargo, reducing the risk of theft and improving trade.

Outline the development of security systems as a factor of globalisation

Airport security systems have been upgraded worldwide to meet international standards. International customs procedure have been standardised to secure global trade. Collaboration between nations through systems like Interpol improves global crime prevention. Shipping security protocols have been introduced to protect maritime trade.

Explain the development of security relationships as a factor of globalisation

International cooperation between intelligence agencies helps tackle global threats like terrorism. Security alliances like NATO ensures member countries work together to manage global conflict and promote peace. Cross border data sharing agreements help monitor financial crime and cyber threats that affect global systems.

Outline the development of communication technology as a factor of globalisation

The internet allows instant communication worldwide, boosting trade and social connections. Mobile technology enables global connectivity through apps, social media and messaging. Fibre optic cables have increased the speed and reliability of global communication. Cloud computing lets companies store and access data anywhere in the world.

Explain the development of communication systems as a factor of globalisation

The internet has connected people globally, enabling real-time sharing of data and information between countries. Mobile networks and smartphones allow constant global communication, supporting international business and migration. Email and video conferencing enables remote collaboration across time zones, helping TNCs manage global operations.

Outline the development of communication relationships as factor of globalisation

Social media platforms connect individuals and businesses worldwide. Global customer service networks allow companies to interact with clients across continents. International media companies can provide global new coverage, linking people worldwide. Collaborations between telecoms firms improve global network coverage and data services

Explain the development of management technology as a factor of globalisation

Enterprise software helps TNCS coordinate production, finance adn HR across countries. Project management tools enable global teams to work efficiently on shared goals. AI and data analytics allow global companies to make strategic decisions based on international trends

Outline the development of management systems as a factor of globalisation

JIT systems allow efficient global supply chains by reducing storage costs. Outsourcing systems enable businesses to manage work in different counties. 24 hour operation models allow continuous production across time zones. Global HR systems support consistent employee management across countries.

Explain the development of management relationships as a factor of globalisation

TNCs form partnerships with suppliers around the world to manage global production chains. Offshoring relationships help companies relocate tasks to countries with lower labour costs. Franchising agreements allow global brands to expand while maintaining control over management practices

Outline the development of information technology as a factor of globalisation

Faster internet and 5G networks have increased the speed of global communication worldwide. Cloud computing enables businesses to store and access data globally. Big data tools allow companies to analyse global markets and consumer trends. AI and automation have improved productivity and efficiency across borders.

Explain the development of information systems as a factor of globalisation

Global databases and ERP systems help companies track production and sales worldwide. Information systems in logistics allow tracking of shipments and inventory globally. Integrated financial systems support cross border banking and investment.

Outline trade agreements as a factor of globalisation

Trade agreements remove tariffs and barriers, making international trade easier and more profitable. Free trade blocs increase economic cooperation between member countries. Agreements encourage FDI by creating stable and predictable trading environments. Harmonised regulations help businesses trade goods across borders with fewer restrictions.

Explain the form and nature of economic interdependence

Countries rely on each other for goods and services such as electronics made in china and sold in USA. TNC supply chains stretch across many countries meaning a disruption in one area affects the whole system. Financial markets are linked, so economic events like recessions or stock crashes can quickly spread globally.

Outline the form and nature of political interdependence

Countries cooperate in international organisations like the UN and WTO. Decisions in one country can affect others, such as sanctions or foreign policy actions. Migration and conflict require joint response e.g. EU migration policy. Global challenges like terrorism are addressed through political alliances

Explain the form and nature of social interdependence

People are connected through migration with remittances and cultural exchange linking countries. Global communication platforms like social media create shared values and awareness. Health and education systems can be linked e.g international aid, global disease response.

Outline the form and nature of environmental interdependence

Pollution in one country can affect others, such as air or water pollution crossing borders. Climate change is a shared global issue, requiring international cooperation. Natural disasters and their management often involve international aid. An example could be US providing aid for Haiti after the 2010 earthquake.

Explain the issues associated with interdependence

Economic shocks can spreading globally for example the 2008 financial crisis affected many countries. Relying on other countries for goods makes supply chains vulnerable as seen during Covid 19 pandemic. Unequal power relationships may lead to exploitation or dependency, especially in LICs

Outline how unequal flows of people within global systems can promote stability, growth and development

Migrant workers support labour markets in host countries filling skills gaps. Remittances sent back to origin countries support families and boost local economies. Diaspora communities create cultural links and business networks between countries, skilled migration can lead to knowledge transfer and innovation

Explain how unequal flows of people within global systems can cause inequalities, conflicts and injustices

Brain drain from LIC leads to loss of skilled workers, limiting local development. Low paid migrant workers can be exploited in unsafe conditions especially HICs. Tensions can arisen in host countries due to pressure on housing, services or cultural integration.

Explain how unequal flows of money with global systems can promote stability, growth and development

FDI boosts economies by creating jobs and building infrastructure. Remittances support local spending and development in peripheral countries. Aid can fund public services like healthcare and education.

Outline how unequal flows of money within global systems can cause inequalities, conflicts and injustices

FDI often goes to richer more stable areas, widening the gap with poorer regions. debt from international loans can trap peripherial economies in cycles of repayments. Corruption can divert aid or investment, reducing effectiveness. Profit repatriation by TNCs removes wealth from host countries

Outline how unequal flows of ideas within global systems can promote stability, growth and development

Human right campaigns can lead to more just societies. Global development models guide progress like the UN SDGs. Spread of democratic ideas can promote political stability. Sharing of knowledge helps peripheral economies improve healthcare or education.

Explain how unequal flows of ideas within global systems can cause inequalities, conflicts and injustices

Western values may dominate, marginalising local cultures. Enforcement of human rights may be selective, based on political interests. Imposing economic models may not suit all countries leading to unrest or underdevelopment

Explain how unequal flows of technology within global systems can promote stability, growth and development

Technology transfer through FDI helps improve productivity in (semi) peripheral economies. Access to communication tools supports education, healthcare and governance. Medical and agricultural technologies help improve quality of life and food security.

Outline how unequal flows of technology within global systems can cause inequalities, conflicts and injustices

Peripheral economies often lack access to advanced technologies, widening the digital divide. High tech exports benefit core economeis more, reinforcing global inequality. Military technologies can shift power balances, creating insecurity. Intellectual property laws can prevent peripheral economies from use essential technologies.

Explain how unequal power relations enable some states to drive global systems to their own advantage

Powerful countries dominate institutions like IMF or WTO, shaping trade rules in their favour. TNCs based in HICs influence global markets. Military and economic power allows dominant states to promote their own interests globally.

Outline how unequal power relations enable some states to directly influence geopolitical events

Powerful nations lead to international interventions e.g. US in Iraq. Major economies can impose sanctions, affecting other nations policies. Super powers can broker peace deals or start conflicts, depending on their interests. Control over resources or alliances lets them shape regional politics.

Outline how unequal power relations enable some sates to only be able to respond or resist in a more constrained way

Peripheral economies often rely on aid or trade deals, limiting their choices. Smaller states may follow global rules set by core economies to avoid sanctions or exclusion. Limited military or economic power prevents active participation in global decisions. Protests or alliances may be their only form of resistance

Explain global features in the volume and pattern of international trade and investment associated with globalisation

Trade volume has increased rapidly, especially in manufactured goods and services. Asia has become a major exporter, especially china, due to industrialisation and global supply chains. Foreign direct investment (FDI) flows are concentrated in core economies and semi peripheral economies.

Outline global trends in the volume and pattern of international trade and investment associated with globalisation

Global trade has grown significantly since the 1980s. China is now one of the largest exporters. FDI is increasingly going to semi peripheral economies. TNCs play a major role in trade and investment

Explain trading relationships between highly developed economies

Trade is mostly in high value goods and service such as pharmaceuticals and finance. Similar standards and regulations make trade easier. Multiple investment and supply chains link economies like the USA, UK, Germany and Japan.

Outline the trading relationships between highly developed economies and less developed economies

Core economies often import raw materials from semi peripheral economies. Semi peripheral economies import manufactured goods from core economies. Core economies may invest in semi peripheral economies, through TNCS. Trade is often unequal, with semi peripheral economies depending on a few exports.

Explain the trading relationships between highly between less developed economies

Semi peripheral to semi peripheral trade is growing, especially in regional trade blocs. Trade is often in primary products such as food and raw materials. Infrastructure and political barriers can limit the growth of these trade relationships.

Outline the differential access to markets associated with different levels of economic development

Core economies have better market access due to infrastructure and trade agreements. Peripheral economies face trade barriers such as tariffs and quotas. Developed countries dominate the WTO, influencing trade rules. Peripherals rely on a small number of exports, limiting flexibility

Explain the differential access to markets associated with the impacts of economic and social well being

Countries with poor access to markets struggle to grow economically, limiting job creation. Poor trade access reduces government revenue, restricting spending on health and education. Regions excluded from global trade often experience inequality and poverty.

Outline the nature and role of transnational corporations

TNCS operate in multiple countries. They control global supply chains, from production to sales. They invest in different economies often through FDI. They influence trade, employment and development.

Explain the spatial organisation of transnational corporations

Headquarters are usually in core economies where decisions and R&D take place. Manufacturing is located in peripheral or semi peripheral economies to reduce labour and production costs. TNCs often sell products globally, with regional offices and distribution hubs.

Outline the production of transnational corporations

Production is spread across many countries. They use global supply chains to source materials. They locate factories where costs are low. They may subcontract production to local firms.

Explain the linkages of transnational corporations

TNCs create linkages through FDI, investing in different countries. They built partnerships with suppliers and retailers, forming global networks. They can influence governments through lobbying and investment.

Outline the trading patterns of transnational corporations

TNCs trade globally, sourcing and selling across many markets. They import raw materials and export finished goods. They dominate international trade flows. They benefit from economies of scale, reducing costs.

Explain the marketing patterns of transnational corporations

TNCs use global marketing strategies, adapting products to local markets. Branding is often standardised, creating strong global identities. Marketing is tailored to consumer needs e.g. McDonald's offering different menus by region.

Outline the impacts of globalisation considering the growth benefits

Globalisation increased trade, boosting GDP. It encourages foreign investment, creating jobs. It improves access to new markets and technology. It supports the development of infrastructure and skills.

Explain the impacts of globalisation, considering the development benefits

Globalisation increases access to capital and technology, boosting productivity in developing countries. It promotes economic growth through trade, attracting FDI. It can lead to social development, such as improved healthcare, education and gender equality.

Outline the impact of globalisation, considering the integration benefits

Globalisation connects countries through trade, communication and migration. It encourages cooperation on global issues like climate change. It creates international institutions and agreements. It fosters cultural exchange and shared values.

Explain the impact of globalisation, considering the stability benefits

Increased trade links reduce the likelihood of conflict as economies become interdependent. Global organisations promote peace and cooperation, such as UN and WTO. TNCs investment stabilises economies by creating jobs and improving infrastructure.

Outline the impact of globalisation, considering the inequality costs

Wealth is concentrated in HICs and among TNCs. Peripheral economies often rely on low value exports. Access to technology and markets is uneven. Global wages remain unequal across regions.

Explain the impact of globalisation, considering the injustice costs

TNCs may exploit workers with poor conditions and low wages. Indigenous rights and local cultures may be ignored, especially in land grabs. Wealth and power imbalances mean some voices are excluded from global decisions.

Outline the impact of globalisation, considering the conflict costs

Competition for resource can lead to conflict. Globalisation can increase inequality, which fuels unrest. Migration may lead to tensions in host countries. Cultural homogenisation may cause resistance.

Explain the impact of globalisation, considering the environmental costs

Increased production and transport lead to pollution and emission. Deforestation and land degradation often result from global commodity demand. TNCs may relocate to countries with weaker environmental laws.

Explain the difference between norms, laws and institutions

Norms are unwritten rules or expected behaviours e.g. respecting human rights. Laws are formal rules enforced by authorities e.g. trade regulations or environmental laws. Institutions are organisations that help govern, such as the UN, IMF, WTO.

Outline the emergence of regulating and reproducing global systems

Global system like the UN and WTO were created after WW2. They aim to regulate trade, peace, development. They help maintain the global order by reinforcing norms and rules. TNCs and NGOs also influence global systems today.

Explain the issues associated with attempts at global governance

Lack of enforcement mechanisms makes global rules hard to apply. Wealthy countries often dominate decision marking, excluding poorer states. Global governance can clash with national sovereignty.

Outline how agencies work to promote growth and stability in global governance

IMF provides loans to support local economies. UN works to resolve conflicts and promote peace. World bank funds development projects. NGOs help deliver aid and improve human rights.

Explain how agencies can exacerbate inequalities and injustices

IMF loan conditions may involve austerity, which harms the poorest. TNCs may exploit cheap labour in peripheral economies, creating unequal benefits. Global rules are often designed by core economies, favouring their interests.

Outline how interactions between local and regional scales are fundamental to understanding global governance

Local policies can be shaped by global goals like the SDGs. Regional bodies help implement global agreements. Local resistance to global ideas may affect implementation. Regional cooperation can solve cross border issues like pollution.

Explain how interactions between national and international scales are fundamental to understanding global governance

Governments must balance global commitments with national priorities. National policies can shape global debates, especially from major powers. International aid and agreements depend of national cooperation.

Outline how interactions at global scales are fundamental to understanding global governance

Global governance addresses issues crossing borders like climate change. International institutions set global rules and frameworks. TNCs operate globally, affecting multiple countries. global cooperation is essential in crises, like pandemics

Explain the concept of the 'global commons'

A global common is a resource domain or an area that lies outside of the political reach of any one state. Some examples could be Antarctica or the atmosphere. They are governed by international agreements and laws to protect them from increasing exploitation, pollution and threats of sustainability. For example, Antarctica has tourism laws to ensure that any tourists that do come don't damage the fragile ecosystems.

Outline the benefits of 'global commons'

Provide essential ecosystem services like climate regulation. Offer areas for international cooperation and scientific research. Support biodiversity and rare species. Shared ownership avoids exploitation by a single country

Outline the disadvantages of 'global commons'

Lack of clear ownership can lead to overuse (tragedy of the commons). Enforcement of protection is difficult due to lack of jurisdiction. Vulnerable to environmental damage from global pressures. Conflicting interests between countries over use and conservation

Outline the climate of Antarctica

Coldest place on earth, with avg inland temps of -49˚C. Extremely dry- polar desert. Strong katabatic winds from high interior areas. Seasonal variations in sunlight, 24 hour darkness in winter.

Explain Antarctica's role as a 'global common'

Antarctica is not owned by any one country and is governed collectively. It is protected for purposes, mainly science and conservation. Plays a key role in global climate regulation and sea level control.

Explain Antarctica's vulnerability to economic pressures

Interest in exploiting untapped mineral and energy resources. Expansion of tourism as a source of revenue risks environmental harm. Overfishing and bioprospecting threaten ecosystems.

Outline Antarctica's vulnerability to environmental change

Ice sheets are melting due to rising global temperatures. Ocean acidification affects marine ecosystems. Increased UV radiation from ozone depletion. Wildlife habitats are sensitive to small changes in temperature.

Explain the threats to Antarctica

Climate change is melting ice and changing ecosystems. Fishing and whaling threaten marine species. Tourism and scientific activity cause localised damage.

Outline the threats to Antarctica arising from cliamte change

Ice shelves and glaciers are retreating rapidly. Rising sea levels from melting land ice. Changes in krill populations affect the food chain. Ocean temperatures and acidification harming marine life.

Explain the threats to Antarctica arising from fishing and whaling

Overfishing of krill disrupts the food web. Illegal and unregulated fishing continues despite regulation. Whaling undermines conservation efforts.

outline the threats to Antarctica arising from searching for mineral resources

Minerals like coal, oil and gas may attract future exploitation. Mining would damage fragile ecosystems. Current ban may be challenged due to global demand. Infrastructure needed for mining would disturb wildlife.

explain the threats to Antarctica arising from tourism

Tourism may disturb wildlife and damage vegetation. Cruise ships increase pollution and risk oil spills. Growing visitor numbers threaten wilderness quality.

outline the threats to Antarctica arising from scientific research

Infrastructure like research stations disrupts habitats. Waste and fuel spills from human presence. Aircraft and vehicles cause noise and air pollution. Risk of introducing non-native species.

explain the purpose, scope and systems for inspection and enforcement of United Nations Environment Programme

UNEP promotes environmental sustainability globally. It monitors global issues like ozone depletion and climate change. Works with international treaties but lacks direct enforcement powers.

explain the purpose, scope and systems for inspection and enforcement of the international whaling commission

Aims to regulate whaling and conserve whale populations. Imposed a moratorium on commercial whaling in 1986. Enforcement is strong but some countries like japan still whale due to the culture.

explain the purpose, scope and systems for inspection and enforcement of the Antarctic treaty

Signed in 1959 to ensure peaceful use and protect Antarctica. Bans military activity and mineral exploitation. Parties must agree decisions

inspections allowed but enforcement relies on cooperation.

explain the purpose, scope and systems for inspection and enforcement of the protocol on environmental protection to the Antarctic treaty

Signed in 1991 to strengthen environmental protection. Bans all mineral resource activities except scientific. Requires environmental impact assessments and allows inspections.

Outline the role of NGOs in monitoring threats and enhancing Antarctica's protection

NGOs like green peace and WWF raise awareness and lobby governments. They monitor environmental changes and illegal activities. Support scientific research and conservation. Helps enforce accountability through campaigns.

explain the geographic consequences of global governance in Antarctica impacts other people across the globe

Protecting Antarctica helps stabilise global sea levels and climate. Scientific research on Antarctica helps understand global warming. International cooperation in Antarctica promotes peaceful diplomacy and sustainable models.