Concepts and Language

Categorisation

Categorisation

The process by which humans group and label experiences to make sense of sensory input and act consistently.

Concepts

Mental representations that provide criteria for category membership, helping us organize and understand the world.

Importance of Categorization (William James, 1890)

Categorisation prevents sensory experiences from being undifferentiated chaos, enabling humans to act consistently and achieve goals.

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

Classical view of concepts as lists of defining features (e.g., a bird must be a living thing with feathers).

Prototype Theory (Eleanor Rosch)

Concepts are represented by prototypes, or typical examples, which are processed more efficiently than atypical members.

Theory Theory (Murphy & Medin, 1985)

Concepts are defined by their roles in everyday or scientific theories, accounting for challenges like conceptual combinations.

Basic Level Categories (Rosch et al., 1976)

Mid-level categories (e.g., "apple") that are easiest to process due to strong correlational features.

Types of Concepts

Natural Kinds: People, animals, plants.

Artifacts: Man-made objects.

Abstract Concepts: Scientific (e.g., gravity) or social (e.g., family).

Linking Concepts: Words like "and" or "because."

Embodied Cognition

Concept storage and use are linked to physical experiences (e.g., understanding "chair" involves knowledge of sitting).

Pulvermüller et al. (2005)

Reaction times for limb-related words are faster when motor cortex is stimulated, supporting embodied cognition.

Action Compatibility Effect (Glenberg & Kaschak, 2002)

Quicker responses occur when sentence meaning aligns with physical actions.

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

The idea that language shapes thought to varying degrees:

Strong version: Language determines thought.

Weak version: Language influences cognitive preferences.

Very weak version: Language affects memory encoding ease.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory retrieval is improved when cues match the cognitive context of encoding (e.g., matching environments).

Chomsky’s Competence vs. Performance

Competence: Knowledge of language structures.

Performance: Actual use of language, which may include errors or hesitations.

Garden Path Theory

Parsing model where the simplest sentence structure is chosen first and revised if found incorrect.

Duality of Patterning

Language operates on two levels:

1. Form: Patterns of sounds or symbols.

2. Meaning: Patterns that convey ideas

Pragmatic Meaning

Language features such as:

Presupposition: Assumptions made by the speaker.

Implicature: Inferred meanings.

Speech Acts: Actions performed through language (e.g., promises).

Universal Grammar (Chomsky)

Theory that all languages share underlying principles, despite surface differences in structure.