Chapter 11:

The Renaissance

Meaning "rebirth," this period (c. 1350–1550) saw a revival of classical Greek and Roman culture. Causes include increased wealth from trade (especially in Italy), the fall of Constantinople (sending Greek scholars to Italy), and the patronage of wealthy merchant families.

Scholasticism

The dominant medieval philosophical system that used logic to reconcile Christian dogma with classical philosophy (specifically Aristotle). It was often criticized by Renaissance humanists for being too rigid and disconnected from practical life.

Secularism

A shift in focus from the purely religious and the afterlife to "worldly" concerns, material beauty, and the present moment.

Humanism

An intellectual movement based on the study of classical Greek and Roman literature, focusing on human potential, achievements, and the value of the individual.

Francesco Petrarch

Often called the "Father of Humanism," he was an Italian poet and scholar who recovered lost classical manuscripts and promoted the idea that the "Dark Ages" ended by reviving classical knowledge.

“Oration on the Dignity of Man” (Mirandola)

A famous public discourse that argued humans have a unique place in the universe, possessing free will to ascend to the divine or descend to the beastly. It is considered the "Manifesto of the Renaissance."

Vernacular Language/Literature

The practice of writing in the common spoken language of a region (like Italian, French, or English) rather than Latin. This made literature accessible to the masses and helped form national identities.

Johann Gutenberg and the Printing Press

Inventor of movable type (c. 1440). This technology revolutionized the spread of ideas, increased literacy rates, and laid the groundwork for the Reformation.

Humanist Writers

Scholars who applied humanist principles to literature and social critique, such as Baldassare Castiglione (who wrote The Courtier on ideal behavior).
Niccolo Machiavelli and “The Prince”

Desiderius Erasmus

The most famous Christian Humanist. He sought to reform the Catholic Church from within by emphasizing inner piety and the study of early Christian texts rather than outward rituals.

Medieval vs. Renaissance Art

Medieval art was typically flat, symbolic, and focused on religious icons.Renaissance art emphasized linear perspective, anatomical realism, the use of light and shadow (chiaroscuro), and often featured secular or classical themes.

Leonardo da Vinci

The quintessential "Renaissance Man" (painter, scientist, inventor).
Mona Lisa: Famous for its use of sfumato (smoky blurring of edges).
The Last Supper: A masterpiece of spatial perspective and psychological drama.

Michelangelo

A sculptor and painter who focused on the grandeur of the human form.
David: A colossal marble statue representing humanist ideals of beauty and strength.
Sistine Chapel Ceiling: A massive fresco cycle depicting the biblical history of the world.

Raphael

Known for his clarity of form and ease of composition.
The School of Athens: A fresco depicting the great philosophers of antiquity, representing the harmony of Christian and Classical thought.

Northern Renaissance

Occurred in Northern Europe (Netherlands, Germany, England). It was more focused on religious reform and the meticulous detail of everyday life/nature rather than classical idealism.

Albrecht Dürer and Jan van Eyck

Dürer: A German master of woodcuts and engravings who brought Italian techniques to the North.
Van Eyck: A Flemish painter and early master of oil paint, famous for incredible realism and detail (e.g., the Arnolfini Portrait).

Patrons of the Renaissance

Individuals or groups who financially supported artists to show off their power and status.
Monarchs: Kings and Queens (like Francis I of France) who brought Italian artists to their courts.
The Church and Pope Julius II: The "Warrior Pope" who commissioned the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel.
The De Medici Family: A powerful banking family in Florence that practically funded the birth of the Italian Renaissance.

Society during the Renaissance

Status of Artists: Artists rose from being seen as mere "craftsmen" to "geniuses" with high social standing.
Emerging Business Class: The growth of trade led to a new "middle class" or bourgeoisie, whose wealth competed with that of the traditional landed nobility

Status of the Catholic Church

Before the Reformation, the Church was the most powerful institution in Europe, serving as the primary source of moral authority and a major political player.

The Great Western Schism

A period (1378–1417) when rival popes in Rome and Avignon claimed authority, severely damaging the Church's reputation for holiness and unity.

Corruptions of the Church

Simony: The buying and selling of Church offices.
Pluralism: Holding more than one Church office at a time.
Absenteeism: Clergy members not living in the areas they were supposed to serve.
Clerical Ignorance: Many village priests were illiterate or poorly trained in scripture.
Immoral Behavior: Violations of celibacy and displays of extreme wealth by high-ranking clergy.
Nepotism: Giving high Church positions to family members.

John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, and Erasmus

Early reformers who laid the groundwork for Luther. Wycliffe and Hus emphasized the Bible over Church tradition (and were labeled heretics); Erasmus used satire to critique Church corruption from within.

Indulgences

Certificates issued by the Church that claimed to reduce the time a soul spent in Purgatory. The aggressive sale of these to fund St. Peter's Basilica triggered Luther’s protest.

Martin Luther

A German monk and professor whose quest for salvation led him to conclude that "faith alone" (Sola Fide)—not good works—was the key to heaven.

95 Theses (1517)

Luther's list of arguments against the sale of indulgences and Church corruption, famously posted on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg.

The Protestant Reformation

The 16th-century religious, political, and intellectual upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe, setting in place the structures and beliefs that would define the modern era.

Luther’s Supporters

Many German princes supported Luther for political and economic reasons (to seize Church lands and stop sending tax money to Rome), while peasants initially supported him for spiritual equality.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

A treaty that ended early religious warfare in Germany; it officially recognized Lutheranism and allowed each prince to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism for his territory (Cuius regio, eius religio).

Jean Calvin

A French theologian who established a theocracy in Geneva, Switzerland. His version of Protestantism was much more strict and organized than Luther’s.

Predestination

Calvin’s core doctrine; the belief that God has already determined from eternity who will be saved (the "Elect") and who will be damned.

Henry VIII and the Anglican Church

Henry VIII broke England away from the Catholic Church primarily because the Pope refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. The Act of Supremacy (1534) made the King the head of the Church of England.

Catholic Reformation

The Church’s dual effort to reform its own internal corruptions and to combat the spread of Protestantism.

Charles V and Philip II

The Holy Roman Emperor and the King of Spain, respectively; they were the most powerful defenders of Catholicism during the Reformation and financed many of the wars against Protestants.

Major Differences (Catholic vs. Protestant)

Authority: Catholics (Pope + Tradition + Bible) vs. Protestants (Bible Alone).
Salvation: Catholics (Faith + Good Works/Sacraments) vs. Protestants (Faith Alone).
Priesthood: Catholics (Clergy are intermediaries) vs. Protestants (Priesthood of all believers).

The Council of Trent (1545–1563)

A series of meetings that reaffirmed Catholic doctrines (the 7 sacraments, the Pope's authority, and transubstantiation) but banned the sale of indulgences and improved clergy education.

Jesuits and Ignatius of Loyola

The Society of Jesus was a new religious order that focused on rigorous education, missionary work to win back Protestants, and absolute obedience to the Pope.

Index of Forbidden Books

A list of publications (including works by Erasmus and Galileo) that Catholics were forbidden to read to prevent the spread of heresy.

The Roman Inquisition

A system of Church courts designed to try individuals accused of heresy or alternative religious beliefs.

The French Wars of Religion

A series of civil wars (1562–1598) between French Catholics and Huguenots(French Calvinists).
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre: A targeted group of assassinations followed by a wave of Catholic mob violence against Huguenots in 1572.

Huguenots and the Edict of Nantes

After winning the throne, Henry IV (a former Huguenot who converted to Catholicism) issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, granting Huguenots substantial religious rights and fortified towns.

30 Years’ War (1618–1648)

Causes: Began as a religious conflict in the Holy Roman Empire (The Defenestration of Prague) but turned into a massive political war involving France, Sweden, Spain, and Austria.
Results: One-third of the German population died; the Holy Roman Empire was effectively destroyed as a political power.

Witch-hunts

A period of mass hysteria (c. 1550–1650) resulting in the execution of tens of thousands (mostly women). Causes included religious tension, social anxiety from the "Little Ice Age," and a desire by both Catholic and Protestant states to prove their "godliness."

Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

The landmark treaty ending the 30 Years' War. It recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland, added Calvinism to the list of legal religions, and established the modern concept of state sovereignty.

Interconnected World Economic System

The development of global trade networks (Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and Pacific) that linked Europe, Africa, the Americas, and Asia for the first time.

Commercial Revolution

A period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism (c. 1500–1700) that saw the transition from a feudal economy to a money-based, global trade economy.

Impact of Inflation (Price Revolution)

A rise in prices in the 16th century caused by population growth and the influx of New World silver.
Effect on Nobility: Hurt those on fixed rents.
Effect on Bourgeoisie: Benefited merchants who could raise prices.
Effect on Peasants: Led to a lower standard of living for those paying higher prices for food.

The Bourgeoisie

The emerging urban middle class (merchants, bankers, lawyers) whose wealth came from trade and industry rather than land ownership.

The Dutch Republic’s “Golden Age”

The 17th-century period when the Netherlands became the world’s leading economic power due to religious tolerance, a merchant-run government, and a massive merchant fleet.

Joint-Stock and Chartered Companies

Businesses where investors pooled capital to share risk and profit (e.g., the British/Dutch East India Companies). They often acted as "mini-governments" in colonies.

Stock Exchanges

Formal markets for buying and selling shares in companies; the Amsterdam Stock Exchange(founded 1602) was the first modern stock market.

Caravel vs. Fluyt: Caravel:

A small, fast, highly maneuverable ship used by the Portuguese and Spanish for exploration.
Fluyt: A Dutch cargo ship designed for maximum capacity and a small crew, making it the most cost-effective merchant vessel.
Junks: Massive Chinese ships with compartmentalized hulls; while larger, they were less suited for the long-distance Atlantic "blue water" sailing than European ships.

Mercantilism vs. Capitalism

Mercantilism: State-directed economy focusing on accumulating gold/silver and maintaining a positive balance of trade.
Capitalism: An economic system based on private ownership and the investment of money for profit in a free market.

Mass Consumerism

The beginning of a culture where "luxury" goods (sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco) became widely available and desired by the middle and even lower classes.

Alliance of Government and Business

Monarchies granted monopolies and military protection to chartered companies in exchange for a share of the profits and expanded national power.

Importance of Silver in Trade with Asia

Because Asia (especially China) had little interest in European manufactured goods, silver from the Americas became the primary "global currency" used to buy silk, spices, and porcelain.

Gentry and Serfdom (West vs. East)

Western Europe: Serfdom mostly disappeared; peasants became free tenants or wage laborers.
Eastern Europe: Serfdom was reinforced (the "Second Serfdom") to produce grain for the West, keeping peasants tied to the land.

The Little Ice Age

A period of global cooling (c. 1300–1850) that led to shorter growing seasons, frequent harvest failures, and widespread famine.

Deforestation

The massive cutting of forests to provide timber for the growing navies (shipbuilding) and charcoal for early industrial fuel.

New World Crops (Impact on the Poor)

The introduction of potatoes and maize provided a high-calorie, reliable food source that eventually helped the European population recover and grow despite the cooling climate.

Changes in Agriculture

The slow shift toward more scientific farming, including crop rotation and the Enclosure Movement, which increased food production but pushed many poor farmers off their land.

Galileo Galilei

The first to use a telescope for systematic observation. He discovered mountains on the moon, sunspots, and the moons of Jupiter, proving the heavens were not "perfect" and unchanging.

Rene Descartes

Known as the "Father of Modern Philosophy." He promoted rationalism and deductive reasoning (moving from general truths to specific conclusions). He famously stated, "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am).

Francis Bacon

Promoted empiricism and the inductive method. He argued that scientists should observe the world first and then form general theories (the basis of the modern Scientific Method).

Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey

Vesalius: Challenged ancient Greek medical views by performing human dissections to create accurate anatomical maps.
Harvey: Discovered that the heart acts as a pump and that blood circulates through the body in a continuous loop.

Sir Isaac Newton

Synthesized the work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo into a single system. In his Principia, he outlined the Laws of Motion and the Law of Universal Gravitation, expressed by the formula: F=Gr2m1​m2​​

Reaction of Religious Leaders

Both Catholic and Protestant leaders initially feared that the new science contradicted the literal word of the Bible.

Trial of Galileo (1633)

The Inquisition forced Galileo to recant his heliocentric views and placed him under house arrest.

The Scientific Revolution and Christian Beliefs

Most scientists (like Newton and Boyle) were devout Christians who believed they were uncovering the "laws of God’s handiwork." They saw the universe as a complex machine designed by a creator.

Deism

A popular Enlightenment-era belief in a "Clockmaker God" who created the universe, set it in motion according to natural laws, and then stepped back without further interference.

Royal (Scientific) Societies

State-supported organizations, such as the Royal Society of London, where scientists shared findings. Governments supported them because science could lead to better weapons, navigation, and economic growth.

Scientific Attacks on Superstition

As people began to believe in a universe governed by predictable laws, belief in magic, miracles, and the direct intervention of the devil began to decline among the educated elite.

Were the Scientists Really Revolutionary?

While they changed how we see the world, many "revolutionary" scientists still held older beliefs. Newton spent more time on alchemy and biblical prophecy than on physics, and many still believed in astrology or the "occult" forces of nature.

The Enlightenment

An 18th-century intellectual movement (the "Age of Reason") that advocated for the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress to reform society and government.

Roots of the Enlightenment

Derived from the Scientific Revolution (applying natural laws to human society), Renaissance Humanism (focus on the individual), and Skepticism (questioning traditional religious and political authority).

Philosophes

A group of French intellectuals who popularized Enlightenment ideas. They weren't just philosophers; they were social reformers who wrote for the public.
Skepticism and Secularism

Travel Literature and Cultural Relativism

As Europeans read accounts of other cultures (like China or the Americas), they began to practice cultural relativism—the idea that European customs were not the only "right" way to live, but merely one of many.

Thomas Hobbes (The Leviathan)

He argued that humans are naturally "nasty and brutish." To avoid chaos, people enter a social contract giving up their rights to an absolute ruler. He challenged Divine Right by arguing power comes from the people's need for protection, not from God.

John Locke

The champion of Natural Rights.
Natural Rights: Every human is born with the right to Life, Liberty, and Property.
Tabula Rasa: The "blank slate" theory—the idea that humans are shaped by their environment and education, not by innate "sin" or "nobility."

Voltaire

A fierce advocate for Religious Tolerance and freedom of speech. He practiced Deism, believing in a "Clockmaker God" who created the world but does not interfere in it.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Author of The Social Contract. He believed in Popular Sovereignty (power resides in the people) and the General Will (the collective interest of the community should guide the state).

Baron de Montesquieu

In The Spirit of the Laws, he argued for the Separation of Powers (Executive, Legislative, Judicial) to prevent any one branch of government from becoming tyrannical.

Cesare Beccaria

A criminal justice reformer who argued in On Crimes and Punishments that laws exist to preserve social order, not to seek revenge. He strongly opposed torture and the death penalty.

Denis Diderot (The Encyclopédie)

He compiled a 28-volume set of books intended to "change the general way of thinking" by making all knowledge (science, craft, philosophy) accessible to the public.

Mary Wollstonecraft

A pioneer of feminism. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, she argued that women are rational beings and deserve the same education and rights as men.

Adam Smith and Economic Liberalism

The father of Classical Capitalism. In The Wealth of Nations, he argued for Laissez-faire (letting the market act without government interference), guided by the "Invisible Hand" of supply and demand.

Political Liberalism vs. Conservatism

Liberalism: Favored progress, individual rights, constitutions, and representative government.
Conservatism: Favored tradition, established churches, social hierarchy, and the power of the monarchy.

Enlightened Monarchs (Despots)

Absolute rulers who used Enlightenment principles (like religious tolerance or legal reform) to make their states more efficient and powerful, but refused to give up their absolute authority.
Peter the Great (Russia): Modernized and Westernized Russia; built St. Petersburg.
Frederick II (Prussia): Called himself the "first servant of the state"; promoted religious tolerance and improved schools.
Catherine the Great (Russia): Corresponded with philosophes and considered legal reforms, though she ultimately cracked down on serfs to keep noble support.
Joseph II (Austria): The most radical; he abolished serfdom and granted total religious press freedom, though most of his reforms were undone after his death.

Were they really "Enlightened"?

Historians debate this. While they passed "rational" laws, their primary goal was usually to increase the power of the state and their own military, not to give people freedom.

Impact on Society and Beyond

The Enlightenment led to the rise of Individualism, a decline in the power of the Church, and a belief in Progress. Most importantly, these ideas provided the "intellectual fuel" for the American and French Revolutions.

Political Unification Successes and Failures

The Habsburgs (under Charles V) attempted to create a unified Christian empire across Europe, but failed due to the Reformation, Ottoman pressure, and the resistance of other monarchs who feared a "universal monarchy."

European Rivalries (Religion vs. Politics)

Early conflicts were driven by faith (e.g., the Spanish Armada in 1588, where Catholic Spain tried to invade Protestant England). By the end of the 30 Years' War, rivalries became purely political, based on national interest rather than religious unity.

Absolutism / Absolute Monarchies

A system where the monarch holds supreme, centralized authority, unrestricted by laws, a constitution, or custom (most common in France, Prussia, and Russia).

Divine Right of Kings

The political and religious doctrine that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving the right to rule directly from the will of God.

Louis XIV and the Palace at Versailles

The "Sun King" of France, the ultimate absolute monarch. He built Versailles as a massive stage to project his power and to trap his nobles in a web of court etiquette, preventing them from challenging his rule.

The English Civil War (1642–1651)

A conflict between "Cavaliers" (supporters of the King) and "Roundheads" (supporters of Parliament) over the limits of royal power and religious freedom.

Charles I

The English king who was executed in 1649 after losing the Civil War; his death shocked Europe by proving a monarch could be held accountable by his people.

Oliver Cromwell

The Puritan military leader who ruled England as "Lord Protector" after the Civil War, turning it into a temporary republic (the Commonwealth).

James II

A Catholic king whose attempts to assert absolute power and favor Catholicism led to his being deposed by Parliament.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

The "bloodless" transition of power where William and Mary were invited to take the throne, provided they recognized the supremacy of Parliament.

The (English) Bill of Rights

A landmark document of 1689 that limited the monarch's power, guaranteed free speech in Parliament, and protected individual liberties like "no taxation without consent."