AP Psychology Midterm Review

Serotonin

Affects mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal.

SSRIs

They relieve depression by partially blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin.

Serotonin levels

The amount of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, present in the brain.

Endorphins

Pain relief, pleasure.

Low GABA & anxiety (GAD)

Insufficient levels of inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain can cause difficulty in concentrating and memory problems.

Blocking reuptake

Makes more serotonin available to help pass messages between brain cells.

Neurotransmitter availability

Increased availability elevates arousal and mood and are scarce when a person experiences feelings of depression or anxiety.

Hippocampus & memory

A part of the brain that plays a crucial role in forming new memories and connecting emotions and senses, such as smell and sound.

Brain plasticity

The brain's ability to modify itself to adapt to different experiences.

EEG

Measures electrical brain activity, an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface.

Ghrelin

Hunger regulation, a hunger-arousing hormone.

Circadian rhythm & effects on sleep/alertness

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Stage 2 (NREM) sleep & characteristics

Around 20 minutes long, periodic sleep spindles that aid memory processing.

Effects of disrupted sleep schedules

Depression, difficulty studying, diminished productivity, mistakes, irritability, fatigue.

Figure-ground perception

The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.

Gestalt principles

Proximity, closure, interposition.

Interposition as depth cue

Monocular depth cue used to perceive 3D depth of 2D surfaces.

Blind spot in vision

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a 'blind' spot.

Inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Cocktail party effect

Your ability to attend to only one voice within a sea of many.

Retroactive interference

When new learning disrupts your recall of old information.

Retrograde amnesia

People who cannot remember their past.

Serial position effect (primacy/recency)

Our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially and the first items in a list after a delay.

Wording effects on memory (misinformation effect)

After exposure to subtly misleading information, we may confidently misremember what we've seen or heard.

Classical conditioning & conditioned response (CR)

A type of associative learning where a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.

Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Social learning theory

Posits that people learn behaviors by observing others within social contexts.

Frequency of reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus.

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus.

Normal distribution

Describes how many human traits and test scores cluster around an average.

Negative correlation

One set going up as the other goes down.

Reliability in testing

Refers to the consistency, stability, and dependability of a measure.

Correlation coefficients

Measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.

Dependent variable

The variable that is changed.

Independent variables

Factors that are manipulated by the researcher.

Purpose of replication

To confirm findings, ensure reliability, and establish credibility.

Convenience sample & limitations

A non-probability sampling technique that selects participants based on their easy accessibility.

Longitudinal study

An observational research method that follows the same subjects repeatedly over an extended period.

Exosystem (policies, community)

Environments that indirectly affect a person.

Correlational study limits

Cannot establish causative links between variables.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome & effects

Physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother's heavy drinking during pregnancy.

Infant reflexes

Moro & grasping.

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

Early attachment

The emotional bond that develops between a child and their primary caregiver.

Comfort/security vs. food in attachment

Highlights that comfort/security is a more fundamental human need than food.

Scaffolding in learning

A variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson)

The desire to nurture and guide the next generation.

Hormones & neurotransmitters influence behavior

Play a key role in psychological and behavioral functions.

Biological perspective

Base their explanations of human behavior solely regarding an individual's biological processes.

Sympathetic

Often called the 'fight-or-flight' system.

Parasympathetic

Associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations.

Protection from harm in research

Ensuring physical safety, emotional well-being, privacy rights during psychological research.

Big 5 Research Methods

Experimental Method, Case Study, Correlation Research, Naturalistic Observation, and Meta Analysis.

Operational definition of an identified variable (Method)

How a variable is measured.