I can just smell christmas

after jan 5th we will not be trying

acquisition

The initial stage in CC when one links a stimulus and a US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. In OC, the strengthening of a reinforced response

associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together

behavioral perspective

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without references to mental processes

biological preparedness

A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

classical conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment

conditioned response (CR)

The learned response to a previously neutral (but now learned) stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with a US, comes to trigger a CR

continuous reinforcement

Rewarding the desired response every time it occurs

counterconditioning

Behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors.

extinction

The diminishing of a CR; occurs in CC when an US does not follow a CS; occurs in OC when a response is no longer reinforced

fixed interval

In OC, reinforces a response at specific period of time

fixed ratio

In OC, reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.

higher-order conditioning

A procedure in which the CS in one conditioning experience is paired with a new NS, creating a second (often weaker) CS

insight learning

A sudden realization of a problem's solution.

instinctive drift

The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

learned helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as a shock. When removed after a response, strengthens the response

Negative punishment

punishment that results by removing something as a consequence of a behavior. For example, taking away car keys for breaking curfew.

neutral stimulus

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

one-trial conditioning/learning

Mastery of a skill after only one trial.

operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

partial reinforcement

Rewarding a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response, but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. It is any stimulus, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

positive punishment

punishment that results by adding something extra as a consequence of a behavior. For example, having to do the dishes for the next month because you swore at your teacher.

primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

punishment

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows

reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

reinforcement generalization

in operant conditioning, the appearance of a reinforced behavior in a new context, because of previous reinforcement in a similar context. For example, a child reinforced for using their manners at the dinner table at home may exhibit this behavior at the lunch table at school, even though the behavior was never reinforced there

reinforcement schedules

systematic approaches to administering reinforcements for desired behaviors; they can be dependent on the number of responses made (ratio) or the timing of the responses (interval)

scalloped graph

the pattern that appears on a cumulative response graph when a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule is used; reflects an inconsistent pattern of responding in which the organism only begins making the response as the time for the available reinforcements draws near

secondary reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a conditioned reinforcer

shaping

An OC procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

social learning theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished CR

reinforcement discrimination

In OC, a stimulus that increases the probability of a response because of a previous history of reinforcement in the presence of that stimulus.

stimulus discrimination

In CC, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that do not signal a US

stimulus generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimulus to the CS to elicit similar responses

superstitious behavior

behavior that results from accidental reinforcement of an action so that the organism continues to repeat it; for example, if a rat that turned in a circle before pushing a lever and receiving food, it might continue turning in a circle before each press, even if that is not required for reinforcement to occur

taste aversion

A type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulus

unconditioned response (UCR)

The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response

variable interval

In OC, reinforces a response at unpredictable periods of time

variable ratio

In OC, reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

vicarious conditioning

Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action

apparent movement

an illusion of motion or change in size of a visual stimulus

attention

a state in which an individual is focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others

binocular depth cue

Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes.

bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

change blindness

Failing to notice differences in the environment.

closure

The tendency to complete figures that are incomplete.

cocktail party effect

Ability to attend to only one voice among many.

color constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

constancies

Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.

context

refers to the environment in which a stimulus event occurs (e.g., the location or circumstances surrounding the stimulus); this affects memory, learning, judgment and perception

convergence

The ability to turn the two eyes inward toward each other to look at a close object, enabling the slightly different images of an object seen by each eye to come together and form a single image, allowing us to see depth with the use of both of our eyes.

figure and ground

The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.

Gestalt psychology

The whole experience is greater than the sum of the individual parts.

inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our focus is directed elsewhere.

interposition

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer.

linear perspective

Two objects appear closer together as the distance from them increases, as seen in the tracks of a railroad that appear to converge on the horizon.

monocular depth cues

The information in the retinal image that gives us information about depth and distance but can be inferred from just a single eye.

lightness constancy

the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same brightness under different conditions of illumination; for example, a piece of white paper appears to have similar brightness in daylight as it does at dusk, even though the energy it reflects may be quite different

perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

perceptual constancy

the phenomenon in which an object or its properties appear unchanged despite variations in the stimulus itself or in the external conditions of observation, such as object orientation or level of illumination.

proximity

Gestalt grouping principle; we group nearby figures together.

relative clarity

Objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects

relative height

We perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away; a visual and artistic perspective where distant objects are seen or portrayed as being smaller or higher in relation to items that are closer.

relative size

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away.

retinal disparity

A binocular for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

schema

a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving. For example, the schema "dorm room" suggests that a bed and a desk are probably part of the scene, that a microwave oven might or might not be, and that expensive Persian rugs probably will not be.

selective attention

The ability to focus on one stimulus while excluding other stimuli that are present.

shape constancy

A type of perceptual constancy in which an object is perceived as having the same shape when viewed at different angles.

similarity

The tendency to perceive things that look like each other as being part of the same group.

size constancy

The ability to perceive an object as being the same size despite the fact that the size of its retinal image changes depending on its distance from the observer.

texture gradient

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct pattern to a fine, indistinct pattern signals increasing distance. Objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed.

top down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

absolute threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

accommodation

The process by which the focus of the eye is changed to allow near or distant objects to form sharp images on the retina.

afterimages

A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.

amplitude

The height of a wave as measured from the highest point on the wave (peak or crest) to the lowest point on the wave (trough).

bitter

the unpleasant taste evoked by foods like coffee, spinach, and brussels sprouts; natural selection may contribute to a predisposition to find these tastes unpleasant, especially during early childhood, as bitter-tasting substances in the natural environment are often toxic

blindspot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating an area in which no visual information can be detected because no receptor cells are located there.

conduction deafness

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

cones

Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight and in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

dichromatism

Partial color blindness in which the eye contains only two types of cone photopigment instead of the typical three: Red-green color blindness is the most common, whereas the blue-green variety is relatively rare.

farsightedness

is a refractive error due to an abnormally short eyeball, which causes the image of close objects to be blurred because the focal point of one or both eyes lies behind, rather than on, the retina

frequency theory

The rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

ganglion cells

The last layer of photoreceptors within the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation.

gate control theory

Spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals air allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

gustation

The sense of taste. Taste is at the threshold between the external (chemical) and internal (biochemical) worlds; it serves an organism's nutritional needs and protects it from poisons.

just-noticeable difference

The minimum distinction between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.

kinesthesis

Also known as proprioception, this is the sense of the location of body parts in relation to the ground and each other.

lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

loudness

the subjective magnitude of sound. It is determined primarily by intensity but is also affected by other physical properties, such as frequency, spectral configuration, and duration