GEOG 1301 Exam 2 Study

Meteorology

the scientific study of the atmosphere is called?

Climate

what is defined as the long-term average (over decades) of weather conditions and extremes in a region?

Solid, Liquid & Gas

what are the 3 physical states of water?

Water

what is the most common compound on Earth's surface and can exist in all three states: ice, liquid and gas?

Specific heat

____________ _________ is the amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of a substance.

phase change

when water goes from one state to another it undergoes a __________ __________

Heat energy

what must be added or released from water for it to undergo a phase change?

latent heat

heat energy that is absorbed or released as water changes phases is called what?

30%

when heat exchange occurs during the phase changes of water what percentage of that energy is used to power the general circulation of the atmosphere?

4°C (39°F)

At what temperature does water reach its greatest density?

Sublimation

refers to the direct change of ice to water vapor

Deposition

what is called when referring to the direct change of water vapor to ice?

latent heat of condensation

when water vapor condenses to a liquid, each gram gives up its stored 540 cal.

latent heat of vaporization

the phase change from liquid to vapor at boiling temperature, under normal sea-level pressure, requires the addition of 540 calories for each gram

latent heat of evaporation

when water evaporates @20°C (68°F), each gram of water must absorb approximately 585 cal from the environment.

humidity

refers to water vapor in the air

relative humidity

is the ratio (given as a percentage) of the amount of water vapor that is present in the air compared to the maximum water vapor possible in the air at a given temperature

dew-point temperature

the temperature at which a given mass of air becomes saturated and condensation begins.

frost point

when air becomes saturated and ice crystals are deposited, forming frost.

specific humidity

mass of water (in grams) vapor per mass of air (in kilograms)

stability

refers to the tendency of an air parcel to rise, remain in place, or fall.

adiabatic rates

refer to the change in temperature of a moving parcel of air

Dry Adiabatic Rate (DAR)

the rate at which "dry" air cools by expansion (if ascending) or heats by compression (if descending)

Moist Adiabatic Rate (MAR)

the rate at which an ascending air parcel that is moist, or saturated, cools by expansion

Lifting Condensation Level (LCL)

the altitude at which condensation occurs

Cloud

a visible group of moisture droplets or ice crystals suspended in air

Fog

a cloud at ground level.

Precipitation

is liquid or solid water falling from clouds

low, middle, high, and vertically developed

the four altitudinal classes of clouds are:

Fog

tells us that air at the ground level is saturated

Convergent, Convectional, Orographic, and Frontal Lifting

when is lifted, it expands and cools adiabatically. The 4 main lifting mechanisms are:

convergent lifting

air flows toward an area of low pressure

convectional lifting

local surface hearing causes warm air to rise

orographic lifting

air is lifted upward by a barrier such as a mountain range.

frontal lifting

warmer air is lifted upward by cooler air

midlatitude cyclone (wave cyclone)

storms that are formed by the conflict between warm, moist tropical air masses and cool, dry polar air masses.

Cyclogenesis, open stage, occluded stage, and the dissolving stage

what are the four stages of a midlatitude cyclone?

Cyclogenesis

a disturbance develops along the polar front or in certain other areas. Warm air converges near the surface and begins to rise, creating instability.

Open stage

cyclonic, counterclockwise flow pulls warm, moist air from the south into the low-pressure center while cold air advances southward west of the center.

Occluded stage

the faster-moving cold front overtakes the slower warm front and wedges beneath it. This forms an occluded front, along which cold air pushes warm air upward, causing precipitation.

Dissolving stage

the midlatitude cyclone dissolves when the cold air mass completely cuts off the warm air mass from its source of energy and moisture.

Barometric pressure, Pressure tendency (steady, rising, falling), Surface air temperature, Dew-point temperature, Wind speed and direction, Type and movement of clouds, Current weather, State of the sky (current sky conditions), Visibility; vision obstruction (fog, haze), and Precipitation since last observation.

important weather data necessary for the preparation of a weather map include the following:

Derechos

straight-line winds over 93 kmh (58 mph) associated with downbursts from rapidly moving thunderstorms and bands of showers.

discharge of gases by Earth.

What is outgassing?

contains about 1.36 billion cubic kilometers of water (326 million cubic miles)

How much water does the Earth's hydrosphere contain?

by determining how the incoming precipitation "supply" is distributed to satisfy the output "demand" of plants, evaporation, and soil-moisture storage.

How do we calculate soil-water budgets?

22%

What percentage of precipitation falls directly to Earth's land surface?

Precipitation (P)

is the moisture supply to Earth's surface.

Evapotranspiration

evaporation from land and water surfaces and transpiration by plants combined

Actual Evapotranspiration (ACTET)

the amount of water that returns to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration

Potential Evapotranspiration (POTET)

the amount of water that would evaporate and transpire if the moisture supply was always present, as is the case over the oceans and in rain forests

Meteorological Drought

degree of dryness, compared to a regional average, and the duration of dry conditions

Agricultural Drought

occurs when shortages of precipitation and soil moisture affect crop yields

Hydrological Drought

relates to the effects of rain and snow shortages on water supply, such as when streamflow decreases, reservoirs drop, snowpack declines, and groundwater use increases

Socioeconomic Drought

results when reduced water causes resource shortages, such as declining hydropower

Precipitation =

actual evapotranspiration + surplus + change in soil-moisture storage

stream flow

comes from surplus surface water runoff, subsurface flow, and groundwater

along the equator within the tropics, reflecting the continual rainfall along the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Where does the highest stream flow occur?

three gorges dam on the yangtze river in China

Which dam is the largest in the world?

Define perennial streams:

streams are constantly flowing

Define intermittent streams:

streams that flow occasionally

zone of saturation

water reaches this zone where the pores completely fill with water by storing water in countless pores and voids

water table

the upper limit of the water that collects in the zone of saturation and where the zone of saturation and the zone of aeration are in transition.

aquifer

a subsurface rock layer that is permeable to groundwater flow and can store and transmit large amounts of water and nourish wells and springs.

unconfined aquifer

has a permeable layer above which allows water to pass through, and an impermeable layer below

confined aquifer

bounded above and below by impermeable layers of rock or clay

artesian well

where water under natural pressure may rise to the surface without pumping

hydraulic fracturing (fracking)

controversial source of groundwater contamination, is a process where large quantities of water, sand, and chemicals under high pressure are pumped into subsurface shale rock in order to release deposits of natural gas or oil.

groundwater mining (overdraft)

this is when water is pumped from a well and the surrounding water table is lowered within an unconfined aquifer because the pumping rate exceeds the replenishment flow of water into the aquifer or the horizontal flow around the well

the middle east (i.e. Israel and Saudi Arabia)

Where has groundwater become a nonrenewable resource?

the high plains or ogallala aquifer is the largest in North America spanning over American High Plains, an eight-state, 450,600-km square(174,000-mi square) area from southern South Dakota to Texas

What aquifer is the largest in North America?

Climate

When you consider the weather over many years, including its variability and extremes, a pattern emerges that constitutes what?

The tropics and on the windward side of mountains (Gulf of Alaska and northern India)

Where do the wettest locations lie?

The subtropical high-pressure areas or in continental interiors far from sources of ocean moisture (northern Africa and central Australia)

Where are the driest regions located?

Climatology

What is the study of climate and its variability called?

Climatic Regions

Local climates that experience broad similarities are grouped into __________.

Temperature and Precipitation

What two principal climatic components reveal general climate types such as hot and dry tropical deserts, cold and dry polar ice sheets, or warm and wet equatorial rain forests?

a distinct set of climatic characteristics

What is a climate regime?

Three

How many distinct regimes do tropical climate areas have?

tropical rain forest, tropical monsoon, and tropical savanna

What are the three distinct regimes in tropical climates?

moist and war

All tropical rain forest climates are constantly _____ and ____.

The Amazon and Congo River basins

Where are the world's largest stream discharges located?

mesothermal or "middle temperature" also known as the temperate climate regions

What term describes the warm and temperate climates where true seasonality begins?

humid subtropical hot-summer (moist all year), humid subtropical winter-dry (hot to warm summers; Asia), marine west coast (warm to cool summers, moist all year), and Mediterranean dry-summer (warm to hot summers).

What are the four distinct regimes that are based on precipitation variability?

humid subtropical hot-summer climates

What type of climates are moist all year or have a distinct winter-dry period?

humid continental hot-summer (Chicago, New York); humid continental mild-summer (Duluth, Toronto, Moscow); sub-arctic cool-summer (Churchill); and the formidable extremes of frigid subarctic with very cold winters (Verkhoyansk and northern Siberia).

What are the four distinct microthermal regimes?

The distribution of annual precipitation

What differentiates humid continental hot-summer climates from other microthermal climates?

Verkhoyansk, Siberia. The annual temperature range is 63°C(113.4°F)

What area of the world experiences the world's greatest annual temperature range from winter to summer?

polar climates

What climates have no true summer?

three

How many regimes do polar climates have?

tundra, ice caps and ice sheets, and polar marine

What are the three polar climate regimes?

rain forest, monsoon, and savanna

As the ITCZ shifts it creates subtle differences in annual rainfall. The results are three distinctive tropical climates. What are they?

35%

What percentage of the Earth's land surface do dry climates occupy?

dry climate

Which climate type occupies the Earth's land surface more than any other type?

study of past climates, the measurement of current climatic changes, and the modeling and projection of future climate scenarios

What are the three key elements for climate change science?

the science of paleoclimatology

What is the study of Earth's past climates called?

changing climate, affecting all Earth systems and the sustainability of human societies.

The climate change science is the interdisciplinary study of the causes and consequences of what?

proxy methods

Instead of direct measurements, what methods do scientists use to study climates before record keeping began?

Dendrochronology

The process of counting tree rings to determine the age of a tree

Medieval Climate Anomaly

What anomaly occurs when there is a departure from normal conditions?