Long-Term Memory: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation

Long-Term Memory

Storage of information over extended periods.

Encoding

Transforming information into a memory format.

Retrieval

Accessing information from long-term memory.

Consolidation

Stabilizing a memory after initial acquisition.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repetition that keeps information in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Using meanings to enhance memory transfer to LTM.

Levels of Processing Theory

Memory retention depends on the depth of processing.

Shallow Processing

Focus on physical features, leading to poor memory.

Deep Processing

Focus on meanings, leading to better memory retention.

Self-Reference Effect

Better recall of information related to oneself.

Visual Imagery

Using mental images to enhance memory encoding.

Generation Effect

Improved memory from generating information actively.

Survival Value

Relating information to survival enhances memory retention.

Organizing Information

Structuring information improves recall and memory.

Retrieval Practice

Practicing retrieval enhances long-term memory retention.

Bower & Winzenz Study

Compared visual imagery and repetition for memory.

Craik & Tulving Study

Investigated depth of processing on memory recall.

Physical Features

Characteristics of stimuli that affect shallow processing.

Meaningful Connections

Linking new information to existing knowledge aids memory.

Memory Techniques

Strategies developed from memory research for effective studying.

Survival Value

Words related to survival enhance recall ability.

Bransford & Johnson (1972)

Study on comprehension's effect on memory encoding.

Experimental Group 1

Saw a picture before reading the passage.

Experimental Group 2

Saw a picture after reading the passage.

Control Group

Did not see any picture during the study.

Mental Framework

Aids memory encoding and retrieval processes.

Testing Effect

Testing improves memory retention over re-reading.

Roediger and Karpicke (2006)

Study comparing testing vs. re-reading for memory.

Recall Test

Participants tested on material after reading.

Cued Recall

Using prompts to aid memory retrieval.

Mantyla (1986)

Study on effectiveness of self-generated retrieval cues.

Free-Recall

Recalling information without any prompts or cues.

Encoding Specificity

Better recall when context matches learning environment.

Godden & Baddeley (1975)

Study demonstrating context-dependent learning effects.

Diving Experiment

Participants recalled better in the same underwater context.

Context-Dependent Learning

Recall improved when context during encoding matches retrieval.

Memory Retrieval

Transferring information from long-term to working memory.

Recall Performance

Measured effectiveness of memory retrieval strategies.

Information Transfer

Moving data from long-term memory to conscious awareness.

Memory Failures

Often due to inability to retrieve information.

Retrieval Cues

Prompts that enhance the recall of information.

State-Dependent Learning

Memory retrieval is enhanced by matching internal states.

Mood Congruence

Better recall occurs when mood aligns during encoding and retrieval.

Crime Victim Assistance

Police use mood re-experiencing to aid memory recall.

Distributed Practice

Learning over multiple sessions improves recall effectiveness.

Massed Practice

Cramming information in one session hinders memory retention.

Attention Maintenance

Sustained attention is challenging in lengthy study sessions.

Feedback from Breaks

Studying after breaks helps assess existing knowledge.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

Memory performance improves with matching encoding and retrieval processes.

Morris et al. (1977) Study

Tested encoding strategies using rhyming versus semantic methods.

Rhyming Strategy

Learning words through sound similarity for better recall.

Semantic Strategy

Learning words based on meaning for improved memory.

Recall Testing

Memory retrieval assessed through specific task types.

Encoding Context

The environment during learning influences memory retrieval.

Consolidation

Transforming new memories into a permanent state.

Synaptic consolidation

Rapid changes at synapses during memory formation.

Systems consolidation

Gradual reorganization of brain circuits over time.

Muller and Pilzecker

Researchers who studied memory through nonsense syllables.

Nonsense syllables

Meaningless syllables used to study memory retention.

Learning delay

Time interval between learning sessions affecting retention.

Hebb's theory

Learning represented by physiological changes at synapses.

Neural record

Physiological changes that encode experiences in the brain.

Long-Term potentiation (LTP)

Enhanced neuron firing after repeated stimulation.

Standard model of consolidation

Hippocampus essential during initial memory consolidation.

Reactivation

Hippocampus replays neural activity for memory retrieval.

Multiple trace hypothesis

Hippocampus involved in retrieval of all memory types.

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memory for events before trauma.

Graded amnesia

Recent memories are more fragile than older ones.

Elaboration

Connecting new information to existing knowledge.

Generation effect

Improved memory through self-generated learning methods.

Spacing effect

Better retention from multiple short study sessions.

Sleep and consolidation

Sleep enhances memory retention after studying.

Illusion of learning

Familiarity does not equate to true understanding.

Comprehension vs familiarity

Understanding requires deeper processing than mere recognition.

Practical suggestions

Strategies to enhance learning and memory retention.

Neurology of consolidation

Brain processes involved in stabilizing new memories.