Developmental Psychology (Papalia) (copy)

Physical, Cognitive, Psychosocial

3 dimensions of development

Heredity (Nature) / Environment (Nurture)

2 influences on development

Heredity

Inborn traits or characteristics inherited from the biological parents

Environment

Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential influences on development

Maturation

Unfolding of natural sequence of physical changes and behavioral patterns.

Normative Influences

Biological or environmental events that affect many or most people in a society in similar ways and events that touch only certain individuals.

Normative age-graded influences

A type of normative influence that are highly similar for a particular age group.

Normative history-graded influences

A type of normative influence that refers to significant events that shape the behavior and attitudes of a historical generation.

Cohort

A group of people born at about the same time.

Sensitive periods

Times in development when a person is particularly open to certain kinds of experiences.

Plasticity

Range of modifiability of performance.

Physical development

Growth of the body and the brain, including patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health.

Cognitive development

Pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.

Psychosocial development

Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships.

Theory

Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data.

Hypothesis

Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of the research.

Mechanistic Model (Reactive)

A model that views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli.

Organismic Model (Active)

Model that views human development as internally initiated by an active organism and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages.

Quantitative change

Changes in number or amount, such as in height, weight, size of vocabulary, or frequency of communication.

Qualitative change

Discontinuous changes in kind, structure, or organization.

Psychoanalytic
Learning
Cognitive
Contextual
Evolutionary /.Sociobiological

Five major perspectives on human development.

Freud's psychosexual theory

The theory that states that behavior is controlled by powerful unconscious urges.

Erikson's psychosocial theory

Theory that states that personality is influenced by society and develops through a series of crises.

Traditional learning theory / Behaviorism

Theory stating that people are responders and that environment controls behavior.

Social learning theory

Theory stating that children learn in a social context by observing and imitating models.

Piaget's cognitive-stage theory

Theory stating that there are qualitative changes in thought occur with development. Children are active initiators of development.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

Theory stating social interaction is central to cognitive development.

Information-processing theory

Theory stating that human beings are processors of symbols.

Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory

Theory stating that development occurs through interaction between a developing person and five surrounding, interlocking contextual systems of influences.

Evolutionary Psychology

Theory stating that human beings are the product of adaptive processes, which interact with the current environment to shape behavior.

Crisis

A major psychosocial challenge that is particularly important at that time and will remain an issue to some degree throughout the rest of life.

Psychoanalytic perspective

View of human development as shaped by unconscious forces that motivate human behavior.

Learning perspective

View of human development that holds that changes in behavior result from experience or from adaptation to the environment.

Classical conditioning

Learning based on associating a stimulus that does not elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response.

Operant conditioning

Learning controlled by the consequences of the organism's behavior.

Reinforcement

The process by which a behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

Punishment

The process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of repetition.

Reciprocal determinism

Badura's term for birectional forces that affect development.

Observational Learning

Learning through watching the behavior of others.

Organization
Accommodation
Equilibration

According to Piaget, cognitive growth occurs in three interrelated processes which are called?

Organization

The tendency to create categories, by observing the characteristics that individual members of a category.

Schemes

Organized pattern of thought and behavior used in particular situations.

Adaptation

Piaget's term for adjustment to new information about the environment, achieved through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

Piaget's term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure.

Accommodation

Piaget's term for changes in a cognitive structure to include new information.

Equilibration

Piaget's term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through assimilation and accommodation.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help.

Scaffolding

Temporary support to help a child master a task.

Contextual perspective

View of human development that sees the individual as inseparable from social context.

Microsystem

It consists of the everyday environment of home, work, school, and neighborhood.

Mesosystem

It is the interlocking influence of microsystems.

Exosystem

It consists of interactions between a microsystem and an outside system or institution.

Macrosystem

It consists of overarching cultural patterns, such as dominant beliefs, ideologies, and economic and political systems.

Chronosystem

It represents dimension of time.

Evolutionary/Sociobiological perspective

View of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of behavior.

Fertilization

Union of the sperm cell and ovum from which the a zygote is produced.

Zygote

One celled organism resulting from fertilization.

Chromosomes

Coils of DNA that consist of genes.

DNA

Chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life.

Genes

small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes.

Autosomes

The 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression.

Sex chromosomes

Pair of chromosomes that determine sex.

46

How many chromosomes do humans have?

Alleles

Two or more alternative forms of a gene.

Polygenic inheritance

A pattern of inheritance in which many genes influence a trait.

Phenotype

Observable characteristics of a person.

Genotype

Genetic makeup of an organism.

Multifactorial transmission

The determination of traits by a combination of both genetic and environmental factors.

Epigenesis

Mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body cells.

Incomplete dominance

Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives two different alleles, resulting to a partial expression of a trait.

Sex-linked inheritance

Pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring.

Down syndrome

Trisomy 21

Genetic Counseling

Clinical service that advises prospective parents of their probable risk of having children with hereditary defects.

Behavioral genetics

Quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior.

Concordant

Term describing tendency of twins to share the same trait or disorder.

Reaction range

Potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait.

Canalization

Limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics.

Genotype-environment interaction

The portion of phenotypic variation that results from the reactions of genetically different individuals to similar environmental conditions.

Genotype-environment correlation

Tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive (evocative), or active. Also called genotype-environment covariance.

Passive correlation (gene-environment correlation)

A type of genotype-environment correlation wherein the child has no control over it, and parents provide certain genes and environments for their children.

Reactive or evocative correlations

A type of genotype-environment correlation wherein children with different genetic makeup's evoke different reactions from adults. Parents making arrangements to accommodate their child's talent or special interest

Active correlations

A type of genotype-environment correlation wherein people seek out environments that match their genetic abilities.

Niche-picking

Tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity.

Nonshared environmental effect

The unique environment in which each child grows up, consisting of distinctive influences or influences that affect one child differently than another.

Temperament

Characteristic disposition or style of approaching and reacting to situations.

Critical Period

Specific time when a given event or its absence has a specific impact on development.

Gestation

The period of development from conception to birth.

Germinal
Embryonic
Fetal

Prenatal development takes place in three stages which are:

Cephalocaudal principle
Proximodistal principle

Two fundamental principles where development proceeds.

Cephalocaudal principle

The principle that growth follows a pattern that begins with the head and upper body parts and then proceeds down to the rest of the body.

Proximodistal principle

The principle that development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 weeks)

First 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, blastocyst formation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus.

Blastocyst

A fluid-filled sphere formed about 5 days after fertilization of an ovum that is made up of an outer ring of cells and inner cell mass.

Implantation

Process in which the blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus.

Embryonic disk

A thickened cell mass from which the embryo begins to develop.

Amniotic sac

A fluid-filled sac that cushions and protects a developing embryo and fetus in the uterus.

Placenta

It allows oxygen , nourishment, and wastes to pass between the mother and the embryo.

Embryonic Stage (2 to 8 weeks)

Second stage of prenatal development characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs.

Spontaneous abortion

Naturally occurring termination of pregnancy; also known as a miscarriage.

Stillbirth

Loss of fetus after 20 weeks of pregnancy.