Midterm Study Guide (Units 0-3)

Psychodynamic

Historical perspective used by Freud to explain the unconscious influences on behavior.

Behaviorism

The view that psychology should be an objective science studying behavior without reference to mental processes.

Humanistic psychology

A significant perspective emphasizing the growth potential of healthy individuals and their potential for personal growth.

Cognitive perspective

Focuses on brain functioning, including perception, thinking, memory, and language.

Biological (Neuroscience)

Perspective focusing on how brain chemistry, genes, and hormones impact behavior.

Social-cultural

Perspective focusing on the impact of culture, family, friends, and society on behavior.

Evolutionary perspective

Focuses on the influence of ancestors on behavior.

Confidentiality

Ensures personal information about subjects is never shared.

Informed Consent

Subjects must give written consent to participate in research studies.

Case study

An in-depth observation technique involving a single person to reveal universal principles.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in natural settings without manipulation, only describing what occurs.

Experiment

A research method where an investigator manipulates factors to observe effects on behavior or mental processes.

Operational definition

Specifically names operations needed to measure variables in an experiment for replication.

Random assignment

Participants are assigned to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure where both participants and staff are unaware of who received treatment or placebo.

Placebo

A treatment with no therapeutic effect, often used as a control in studies.

Placebo effect

Effects on behavior caused by expectations alone; any outcome from administering a placebo.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment exposed to the treatment of the independent variable.

Control group

The group not exposed to the treatment, contrasting with the experimental group.

Independent variable (IV)

The experimental factor that is manipulated and tested.

Dependent variable (DV)

The experimental factor being measured.

Confounding variable

An unaccounted factor that may affect the results aside from the independent variable.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; the 50th percentile.

Standard deviation

A measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

Normal curve (normal distribution)

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve describing data distribution around the mean.

Statistical significance

A statement about how likely it is that a result occurred by chance.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index ranging from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of a relationship.

Scatterplot

A graph where each dot represents two variables, indicating their relationship.

Twin Biology

Study of the effects of heredity and environment through identical and fraternal twins.

Separated Twins Similarities

Similarities in personality, intelligence, interests, and abilities despite being raised apart.

Nature vs Nurture

Debate on the contribution of genetics vs environment to traits.

Neuron

The nerve cell, essential for communication within the body.

Dendrites

Branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.

Axon

The long part of a neuron that transmits impulses away from the cell body.

Action potential

The brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by neurons to transmit signals to other neurons.

Agonist

A chemical that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A chemical that blocks or inhibits the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters involved in controlling pain and pleasure.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that plays roles in muscle action and memory.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter related to movement, learning, and emotions.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, and sleep.

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord, central to processing information.

Peripheral Nervous System

Includes the sensory and motor neurons connecting the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the PNS controlling voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the ANS that mobilizes the body for action during stress.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the ANS that calms the body after stress.

Endocrine System

The body's system of slow chemical communication using hormones.

Hormones

Chemicals that affect brain functions and other body tissues.

fMRI

Imaging technique showing brain activity while performing tasks.

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing at the base of the brainstem.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard directing messages to sensory areas.

Cerebellum

Coordinates voluntary movements and balance; involved in procedural memory.

Limbic System

Neural structures linked to emotions and drives.

Amygdala

Amygdala: Neural clusters linked to fear and anger emotions.

Hippocampus

Responsible for forming new explicit memories.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in reasoning, planning, and motor control.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to modify itself after an injury.

Psychoactive drugs

Chemicals that alter mental processes and can create tolerance.

Depressants

Drugs that slow neural activity.

Stimulant drugs

Excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Circadian rhythm

The biological clock regulating body rhythms over a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep

The sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movement and vivid dreams.

NREM sleep

Stages of sleep excluding REM sleep.

Insomnia

Recurring problems falling or staying asleep.

Dream

A sequence of images and thoughts during sleep.

Sensation

The process of sensing environmental stimuli.

Bottom-up processing

Information processing beginning with sensory receptors.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes.

Transduction

Conversion of sensory stimuli into neural impulses.

Absolute threshold

The minimum stimulus needed to detect a specific stimulus 50% of the time.

Signal detection theory

Theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus.

Difference threshold

Minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection.

Sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity due to constant stimulation.

Pupil

Adjustable opening in the eye's center for light entry.

Retina

Light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing receptor cells.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

Theory that retina contains three types of color receptors.

Opponent-process theory

Theory explaining color vision through opposing retinal processes.

Cochlea

Fluid-filled tube in the inner ear triggering nerve impulses for hearing.

Sensorineural hearing loss

Hearing loss due to damage to cochlea or auditory nerve.

Place theory

Theory linking pitch perception to cochlea stimulation locations.

Frequency theory

Theory that the frequency of nerve impulses matches the tone frequency.

Gate-control theory

Theory that the spinal cord has a gate for blocking pain signals.

Gustation

Sense of taste; includes six taste sensations.

Olfactory receptors

Cells that receive smell stimuli from the nasal cavity.

Kinesthesis

The sense of body movement and position.

Vestibular sense

The sense of balance controlled by inner ear structures.

Perception

The organization and interpretation of sensory information.

Selective attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a specific stimulus.

Gestalt psychology

Emphasizes perceptions as organized wholes.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through information storage.

Semantic memory

Fact-based memory.

Episodic memory

Memory of specific events.

Explicit memory

Conscious memories that can be declared.

Implicit memory

Unconscious, procedural memories.

Three Stage of Memory

Stages: encoding, storage, retrieval.