Earth Science Final

Universe

EVERYTHING EVERYWHERE ALL AT ONCE

All matter, energy, space, and time

Galaxies

Large groups of stars, gas, & dust

Solar System

A star and objects orbiting it

Stars

Hot, glowing spheres of gas

Hydrogen, Helium

74% ___, 24% ____, 2% other elements make up most of the Universe

Dark matter & dark energy

Make up most of the Universe

Big Bang Theory

Universe began from a hot, dense point

• Amount of matter is the SAME (it just spreads)

• COSMIC BACKGROUND RADIATION (biggest evidence)

• 13.8 billions year expansion started

• Opposite of Steady State Theory

Nebula

Gas and dust

Steady State Theory

• Universe had no beginning or end

• New matter forms as it EXPANDS

• Opposite of Big Bang Theory

Flaw:

There’s always new matter?

Oscillating Universe Theory

Universe EXPANDS and CONTRACTS in cycles

• Big Bang (Hot) to Big Freeze/Crunch → cycle

Flaw:

Current expansion is getting fasted

The Universe

Big Bang, Steady State & Oscillating are theories about the origin of what

Nebular Hypothesis

• Coin vortex (angular momentum & gravity) of gas and dust

• Temperature decides fates (rocky or gaseous) → Heavy elements condense faster

• Observed in young stars with protoplanetary disks

(Nebula → Protosun → Accretion → Protoplanets)

Nebula Hypothesis

Which model has these problems

• Why is Uranus tilted

• Why does Venus spin the other way

• Dust doesn’t turn into rocks

Planetismal Theory

• Billards with glue

• Leftover evidence are the asteroids and comets

• Meteorites show materials from early versions of this

Planetismal Theory

Which model has these problems?

• So no dust fell into the Sun??

• If it collides wouldn’t it break instead of just sticking to each other??

• How do the gaseous planets even form?

Protoplanet Hypothesis

Coin vortex but it's just gas and its basically a typhoon that spins

• Explains how gas giants formed from think parts of the disk

• Fits what we see in some modern telescope images of disk

Protoplanet Hypothesis

Which model has these problems

• So how do the solid planets form quickly??

• Like a typhoon, VERY SPECIFIC CONDITIONS have to be met to form the gaseous whirls

Capture

The Sun lassoed planets, moons and other objects that passed by

(Not supported today)

Triton

The moon that was captured by the Sun that belongs to Neptune

Capture Theory

This model has these problems

• Planets don’t just HAPPEN to pass by the Sun

• So why is everything in the plane and does the revolution the same way?

• VERY SPECIFIC CONDITIONS

• Other planets can be fighting for the things passing by and play a game of gravitational tug-of-war

Stars

Massive balls of gas

Why Earth Can Support Life

We have

• LIQUID WATER

• BREATHABLE ATMOSPHERE WITH LOTS OF OXYGEN

• Goldilocks “Just Right” Temperature

• There's a lot of geological processes going awn

• Rich biodiversity

Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Geosphere & Biosphere

Earth’s 4 Major Subsystems

Atmosphere

• Layer of gases surrounding Earth

• provides breathable air, protects life

• Protects from the Sun’s UV rays

• Regulates temperature changes caused by the Earth’s axis (CAUSE OF THE SEASONS)

Hydrosphere

This subsystem has water

• Regulates Earth’s temperature (Ocean heat absorptions)

• Albe

• Oceans, rivers, lakes

Geosphere

• Solid parts of the Earth

• Provides mineral, nutrients, and land

• Foundation for ecosystem

Biosphere

This subsystem is all living things

• Regulates gas and nutrients balance by maintaining life-supporting cycles

• Interacts with atmosphere, water, and land

Exosphere

This layer of the atmosphere has spaceshis and satellites

(800 to 3000 km) (1200 degrees Celsius)

Nitrogen, Oxygen

This makes up the Atmosphere

78% ___ 21% ___ 1% other gases

Thermosphere

This layer of the atmosphere is where you can find the Aurora Borealis (80-90 to 800 km) (-86.5 to 1200 degrees Celsius)

Mesosphere

This layer of the atmosphere is where you can find meteorological rockets (40-50 to 80-90 km) (-2.5 to 86.5 degrees Celsius)

Stratosphere

This layer of the atmosphere is where you can find Radiosonde (11-50 km) (-56.5 to -2.5 degrees Celsius)

Crust, mantle, inner core, outer core

Layers of the Earth

Plate Tectonics

Creates mountains and oceans

Divergent, Convergent & Transform

Types of Plate Tectonics

Volcanic eruptions

(geosphere) release gases into the atmosphere, affecting climate

Atmosphere & Hydrosphere

Weathering (__sphere & __sphere) breaks rocks in the geospherel forming soil for the biosphere

Water Cycle

Connects atmosphere, hydrosphere and geosphere

Co2

Oceans (hydrosphere) absorb __ from the atmosphere, affecting temperature and marine life

Atmosphere

Pollutions, greenhouse gases affect this subsystem

Hydrosphere

Water pollution and plastic affects this subsystem

Geosphere

Mining and deforesation affects this subsystem

Biosphere

Habitat loss, extinction affect this subsytem

Rock Cycle

• Continous process

• Rocks change from one type to another

• No beginning or end

• Driven by natural process

Igneous, Sedimentary, & Metamorphic

The three types of rocks

Igneous

Formed from cooling or lava

• Has 2 types (Intrusive & Extrusive)

Intrusive Igneous

• Formed underground

• Slow cooling

• Large crystals

(Granite, Diorite, Gabbro)

Extrusive Igneous

• Formed on the surface

• Fast cooling

• Small crystals or glassy

(Obsidian, Basalt, Pumice)

Sedimentary

• Made from particles that settled that settled and became solid

(Sandstone, Shale, Limestone)

Weathering, Erosion, Deposition, Compaction, Cementation

Processes of Sedimentary

Metamorphic

Rocks change by heat, pressure, and chemical reactions

Heat Causes of Metamorphic

• Recrystallization

• new minerals form from old

• Texture change

• Color changes

Pressure

Occurs from

• Rocks getting buried

• Plates collide

• Mountains form

Compression

• Rocks are squeezed

• Pores collapse

• Rock becomes denser

Foliation

• Layering

• Minerals line up under pressure

• Creates bands or white stripes

Distortion

Rocks may bend or fold insteads of breaking

Hot fluids

• Carry ions

• Trigger chemical reactions

• Speed up metamorphism

Contact

• Heat-based

• Occurs near Magma

• Marbles, hornfels

Regional

• (Heat + Pressure)

• Occurs at plate boundaries

• Schist, Gneiss

Dynamics

• (Pressure)

• Occurs at fault lines

• mylonite

Original to Metamorphic

• Shale → Slate

• Limestone → Marble

• Sandstone → Quartzite

• Granite → Gneiss

Endogenic Processes

come from inside the Earth, primarily create BUILDS the Earth/landfroms

• Gets energy from heat

• Sudden/slow

• Earthquake

• Volcanic eruptions

• Folding & Faulting

• Mountain Building

Exogenic Processes

Comes from Earth’s surface, primarily wears down landforms

(gradu

SHAPES THE EARTH

Exogenic Processes

Agents of this process

• Water

• Wind

• Ice

• Gravity

• Living Organism

Exogenic

Major processes of this

• Weathering

• Erosion

• Deposition

• Mass Wasting

Early Earth

Conditions of this period

• Hot surface with volcanoes & lightning

• No free oxygen in the atmosphere

• Ocean formed & allowed chemical reactions

Abiogenesis

• Life came from non-living chemicals

• Simple molecules formed complex organic compounds

• Supported by laboratory experiments

Primordial Soup Hypothesis

• “organic molecule soup”

• energy from lightning helped form life’s building block → formed complex organic molecules → life

• Aleksandr Oparin & J.B.S. Haldane

Miller-Urey Experiment

Simulated the early Earth conditions and successfully demonstrated that amino acids (protein building blocks) could form spontaneously

• (1953) → PS Hypothesis

Primordial Soup Hypothesis

This model has these problems

• Early Earth was rich in methane, ammonia, hydrogen - which there’s new evidence saying hmmm maybe now

• there’s no fossils and where’s the soup

• Wouldn't the molecules get diluted in the ocean

• Molecules → Cells how??

RNA World Hypothesis

• RNA existed before DNA

• RNA could store informaton and catalyze reactions and copy paste → evolution through mutation & selection

• RNA is everywhere & Ribosome is mostly RNA; suggesting ancient roots

• Walter Gilbert

RNA World Hypothesis

This model has these limitations

• Prebiotic Synthesis - so how did RNA monomers form on early Earth??

• RNA instability

Prokaryotic Cells

• The first organisms (~3.8 billion years ago)

• Simple structure, no nucleus

• Began in water (shallow oceans, coastal areas, hydrothermal vents), anerobic (obtains energy through Fermentation & Simple chemical reactions)

Anaerobic

No oxygen required, obtains energy through fermentation and simple chemical reactions

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

A messenger carrying short-term instructions from DNA to ribosomes and transfers amino acids for protein synthesis

• CAN LEAVE NUCLEUS

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Stores long-term genetic info

• CANNOT LEAVE NUCLEUS

Binary Fission

• Asexual reproduction

• single parent cell splits into two daughter clones

Asexual Reproduction

• No need for partner

• Fast reproduction

• Genetically identical offspring

• No variation - vulnerable

(Bacteria, hydra, spider plants)

Cyanobacteria

• Blue-green algae

• Still prokaryotic, single-celled that used Photosynthesis

• Lived in oceans & shallow water

Great Oxygenation Event

• One of the first mass extinction events on Earth

• Oxygen slowly accumulated in the oceans & atmosphere

• Oxygen was toxic to many anaerobic organisms

• Allowed evolution of aerobic organisms

Aerobic Respiration

Type of respiration produces much more energy

• Larger cells

• More complex structures

• Eventual multicellular life

Oxygen

The prescence of _____ led to the

• Formation of ozone layer

• Protection from harmful UV radiation

• Life expanding

Changed Earth from a hostile planet into a life-supporting world

Eukaryotic Cells

• Cells with nucleus & membrane-bound organelles

• larger cells size, division of labor inside cell, more efficient metabolism

• Animals, Plants, Fungi

• Multicellular organisms, specialized tissues and organs

• (~2.0-1.8 billion years ago)

Endosymbiotic Theory

• Early large prokaryotic cells engulfed smaller prokaryotic cells

• smaller cells lived inside the larger one

• Both organisms benefited from this relationship (symbiosis)

• Smaller cells became organelles

Lynn Margulis (1960s)

Endosymbiotic Theory

this is the evidence that support this theory

Own DNA

• Mitochondria & chloroplasts have their own DNA

• DNA is similar to bacterial DNA

Double membranes

• Inner membrane resembles bacterial membrane

• Outer membrane from host cell

Binary Fission

• Mitochondria & chloroplasts divide independently

• Similar to bacterial reproduction

Size & structure

• Similar in size to bacteria

Eukaryotic Cells

• Without this complex life would not exist

• Increased cellular complexity

• Allowed specialization

• Led to multicellular life

Multicellular organisms

Made up of many cells & cells that specific functions

• Plants

• Animals

• Fungi

Unicellular Eukaryotes

one cell does everything

Multicellularity

_____ allowed

• Larger body size → less likely to be eaten

• Cell specialization → more efficient functioning & each cell type has a specific role → led to tissues, organs, organ systems

• Division of labor → tissues & organs

• Cell Communication → cells developed ways to send signals

• Prepared the Earth for the Cambrian Explosion

• Greater diversity of life, more complex ecosystem, foundation for animal evolution

Muscle cells→ movements

Nerve cells→communication

Leaf cells →photosynthesis

Cambrian Explosion

• Many complex life forms appeared rapidly (541 million years ago)

• Lasted 20-25 million years

• Development of shells, exoskeletons, spines

• Arthropods, Mollusks, Annelids, Early chordates (ancestors of vertebrates)

Cambrian Explosion

1. Increased Oxygen Levels → supported higher energy needs & allowed larger and more active animals

2. Genetic Innovations → development of Hox genes, controlled body structure & segmentation

3. Predator-Prey Relations → Prey needed to defend intself

4. Environment Changes → rising sea levels, shallow marine habitats, increased nutrients

• Without this there would be no fish, reptiles, birds or mammals

• Established most basic animal body plans

• Set foundation for modern ecosystems

• Marked the beginning of complex animal life

Sexual Reproduction

• Two parents, (uses gametes - sex cells from each parent)

• DNA is mixed

• There’s variation - survival

• Slower

• Half from each parent

• Genes control traits (eye color, height, blood type, etc)

Mutation

• NATURAL change in DNA - random

• Bajau tribe developed bigger spleen

• Antibiotic-resistant bacteria

• Eye colors

Genetic Engineering

Changing DNA on PURPOSE → human-made, controlled

• Golden rice

• Modern bananas

• Disease-resistant crops

Challenges in Genetic Engineering

1. Unintended effects → changing one gene can affect many traits

2. Mutation & Errors →mistakes in DNA can cause diseases & create defective organisms)

3. Environmental Risks → disrupt ecosystems, reduce biodiversity

4. High cost & technology

Ethical Issues in Genetic Engineering

1. Playing God - unnatural

2. Designer babies → allow parents to choose desired traits (discrimination & inequality)

3. Who controls lifes → abuse power and class

4. Safety → can cure diseases but also create new problems

5. Animal Testing

Benefits of Genetic Engineering

1. Improved Food Production → Crops can be improved to grow faster, produce more food, survive drought, resist pests & diseases

2. Better Nutrition → Golden Rice has more Vitamin A

3. Medical Advancements → allows bacteria to produce insulin for diabetes, growth hormones, vaccines