Unit 3: Development and Learning

Unit three pt. 2

Stranger Anxiety

fear and apprehension infants commonly display around those unfamiliar to them (starts at around 8 months of age)

Temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Parallel Play

a type of play where children play alongside each other without actively engaging or interacting with one another

Imaginary Audience

where an individual imagines and believes that multitudes of people are enthusiastically listening to or watching him or her

Personal Fable

Social Clock

a culture’s preferred timing for social events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-20s when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Psychological stages of development

Trust v. Mistrust

If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust.

autonomy v. shame

Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities.

initiative v. guilt

Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent.

industry v inferiority

Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior.

identity v role confusion

Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are.

intimacy v isolation

Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated.

generativity v. stagnation

Middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.

integrity v. despair

Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of contentment or failure.

adverse childhood expiriences

identity

our sense of self gained through testing and integrating various roles as an adolescent

achievement of identity

a developmental stage where an individual has actively explored various options and made a committed decision about their personal values, beliefs, and goals, essentially forming a strong and stable sense of self after considering different possibilities

diffusion of identity

a state where individuals lack a clear sense of self and have not made commitments to any particular identity or life direction.

foreclosure of identity

a psychological state where individuals make commitments to certain beliefs, values, or roles without fully exploring or considering other options

moratorium of identity

developmental stage characterized by an individual actively exploring various options related to their identity, while not yet committing to any particular path or identity.

assosiative learning

realizing that certain events occur together.

behavioral perspective

all behavior is learned through conditioning and can

be understood without reference to internal mental

processes

unconditioned stimulus

unlearned, naturally occurring cause of behavior

unconditioned response

unlearned, naturally occurring behavior

conditioned response

learned behavior

conditioned stimulus

learned cause of behavior

extinction

diminishing of a conditioned response

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus (as if it were the unconditioned stimulus) creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

Counterconditioning

using the principles of learning to change an existing

behavior

one-trial conditioning

a type of learning where a strong association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is formed after only one pairing

Biological preparedness

Environments are not the whole story. Biology matters.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

the law of effect

the principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

reinforcement

any event that strengthens (or increases the likelihood) the behavior that follows.

punishment

any event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting rewarding stimuli

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli

positive punishment

administration of an aversive stimulus

negative punishment

removal of a pleasant/rewarding stimulus

primary reinforcers

secondary reinforcers

reinforcement generalization

shaping

Instinctive drift

learned helplessness

continous reinforcement

partial reinforcement

fixed-interval schedule

variable-interval schedule

fixed-ratio schedule

social learning theory

vicarious conditioning

model

insight learning

latent learning

cognitive maps