AP Psych Vocab - Unit 6 - Developmental Psychology

teratogens

substances, like chemicals or viruses, that can damage an embryo or fetus

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy

rooting reflex

the natural ability of a newborn, when something touches cheek, to turn and open mouth to begin sucking

novelty preference task

a task in which an infant is shown a new object simultaneously with a familiar one; infants will visually inspect a new object over a familiar object

maturation

the biological growth process

developmental norms

the typical skills and expected level of achievement associated with a particular stage of development

synaptic pruning

the process where the brain naturally eliminates unnecessary connections between neurons; occurs during childhood as a part of maturation

infantile amnesia

the inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories from infancy

phonemes

smallest distinctive sound unit

morphemes

smallest unit of a word or character that carries meaning

grammar

the system of rules that helps us order words into sentences (syntax) and derive meaning from morphemes, words and sentences (semantics)

motherese

baby talk by parents; stimulates attention

babbling stage

beginning at four months; infants spontaneously utter various sounds unrelated to their household language

holophrase

one word to express an idea (e.g. “water!” meaning give me water)

telegraphic speech

two-word statements that children talk in (around two years old)

B. F. Skinner’s theory of language development

children learn language through imitation and operant conditioning

Noam Chomsky’s theory of language development

all human languages share some basic elements (a universal grammar); we learn grammar naturally and have a built-in predisposition to pick up grammar rules

language acquisition device

as proposed by Chomsky, an innate ability that allows humans to understand language; provides an underlying structure for grammar rules

Sapir-Whorf linguistic relativity hypothesis

language determines the way we think

schemas

mental molds or frameworks that organize and interpret information

assimilation

the interpretation of new info in terms of existing schemas (schema remains the same)

accommodation

the adjustment of new info into existing schemas (schema changes based on new information)

sensorimotor stage

learning about the world from senses and movement, gradual development of object permanence

object permanence

in babies, schemas only develop based on things that can be readily seen

preoperational stage

children learn to use language but do not understand the mental operations of concrete logic; learn symbolic thinking and pretend play; lack concept of conservation and can’t categorize

conservation

the idea that mass, volume, number remain the same despite changes in the form of objects

animism

the attribution of thoughts and feelings to objects

egocentric

in childhood, the inability to perceive things from another’s point of view

theory of mind

the ability to take another person’s perspective and understand their intentions, feelings, perceptions, etc.

concrete operational stage

children gain mental operations to think logically about concrete events, understanding of conservation; can perform mathematical operations

formal operational stage

older children can think logically about abstract concepts (hypothetical questions, the future); can use metaphors and analogies

zone of proximal development

the zone between what a child can and can’t do (what a child can do with help)

scaffolding

temporary aid (usually from adults) from which children can reach higher level of thinking

attachment

an emotional tie with another person

infant-parent bond

the idea that babies get attached to caregivers and fear strangers

harlow experiment

creation of two artificial monkey mothers, one with food but a wire skeleton, one without food but made of soft blankets; found baby monkeys preferred cloth mother

critical period

a window when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life (ducklings programmed to follow their mother around)

strange situation experiment

observation of mother-infant pairs at home, then in a new setting with and without their mothers; noticed attachment differences

secure attachment

resulting from sensitive mothers; infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their mother and show only temporary distress when the mother leaves

insecure attachment

resulting from insensitive mothers; infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

temperament

a person’s innate and inborn characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

“Goodness of Fit” theory

an ideal place for a child has a match between temperament and expectations of environment

authoritative parenting

a parenting relationship that is reciprocal, responsive; high in bidirectional communication

authoritarian parenting

a parenting relationship that is controlling, power-assertive; high in unidirectional communication

permissive parenting

a parenting relationship that is indulgent; low in control attempts

rejecting-neglecting parenting

a parenting relationship that is rejecting or neglecting, uninvolved

Erik Erikson theory of psychosocial development

personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development from infancy to old age

Erikson Stage 1: trust vs. mistrust

babies face a conflict; they must learn to see the world as a safe and predictable place so they can develop basic trust (if not, they become skeptical)

Erikson Stage 2: autonomy vs shame and doubt

toddlers must develop a sense of independence; if prevented by caregivers from doing so the child may feel ashamed and self-doubt

Erikson Stage 3: initiative vs. guilt

young children must learn to initiate and carry out tasks; being discouraged may lead to guilt about trying

Erikson Stage 4: industry vs. inferiority

children must master a skill; if not, they will feel inferior and avoid similar things in the future

Erikson Stage 5: identity vs. confusion

teens must experiment with their identity to test out various social roles; if discouraged, they suffer confusion and lack of direction

social identity

your sense of self in relation to a group (group memberships)

selection effect

people seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests

emerging adulthood

a period from the late teens to the mid-20s, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independent adulthood

puberty

increased flow of hormones in endocrine system, development of frontal lobes and limbic system; occurs earlier for females

Erikson Stage 6: intimacy vs. isolation

young adults must start to form close relationships with others; if fail, they face social isolation

intimacy

the ability to form close, loving relationships

Erikson Stage 7: generativity vs. stagnation

adults need to share skills with the new generation and contribute to society; if fail, they will feel stuck and lost

Erikson Stage 8: integrity vs. despair

older individuals evaluate their life and pass on knowledge; if fail, they will feel that their life has been wasted

gender psychology

a subfield that examines the role of gender in shaping individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behaviors

sex

a category of biological traits involving sex chromosomes, present of hormones, hormone expression, and internal & external genitalia

gender

a constructed social and behavioral category often associated with biological sex

gender roles

expected behaviors for males and females in a culture

social learning theory of gender

children learn gender by observing, imitating, and being rewarded/punished for particular behaviors

ecological systems theory of gender

gender identity and expression is shaped by our interactions with family, school, community, and broader society; adults or culture teach us

gender-schema theory

takes cognition into account; children develop a schema of being male or female and see the world through that lens

preconventional morality

young children hold moral beliefs based on obeying rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards (they accept the moral code of adults)

conventional morality

adolescents follow rules and laws to gain social approval or maintain social order; morality is determined by the majority (cultural norms and traditions)

postconventional morality

a moral system based on personal values, driven by a belief in basic rights

moral intuitions

the idea that morality mostly operates on an unconscious track; automatic thinking individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behaviors