5025 language and literacy

Literacy

the ability to read and write. OR the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute, and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts according to UNESCO

Reading literacy

ability to read. Includes phonological awareness, decoding, comprehension, and vocabulary

Writing literacy

includes spelling, grammar, and sentence structure

Computer literacy

refers to one’s ability to utilize basic functions of computers and other technologies

Phonological awareness

the ability to perceive sound structures in a spoken word, such as syllables and the individual phonemes within syllables

Phonemes

the sounds represented by the letters in the alphabet

Onset sounds

the initial sound in a word

Rime

the sounds that follow the onset in a word

Classroom activities that teach phonological awareness

clapping games, singing songs that involve phoneme replacement, reading poems, songs, and nursery rhymes out loud, reading patterned and predictable texts out loud, playing games with rhyming chants, reading alliterative texts out loud, grouping objects by beginning sounds, etc.

Phonics

the process of learning to read by learning how spoken language is represented by letters, commonly used to teach decoding and reading

Alphabetic principle

refers to the use of letters and combinations of letters to represent speech sounds

Different alphabet writing systems

some are phonological in that each letter stands for an individual sound and words are spelled as they sound. Examples of others include the Chinese logographic system and the Japanese syllabic system

Facts children should know about letters

each letter is distinct in appearance, what direction and shape must be used to write each letter, each letter has a name, there are 26 letters that are grouped in a certain order, letters represent sounds of speech, words are composed of letters and have meaning, one must be able to correspond letters and sounds to read

How children develop language skills

through interacting with others, experiencing language in daily and relevant context, and through understanding that speaking listening are necessary for effective communication

How teachers can assist with language development

modeling vocabulary and teaching new words, using questions and examples to extend descriptive language skills, providing ample response time, asking for clarification, promoting conversations among children, providing feedback so they know they have been heard, providing further explanation when needed

Relationship between oral and written language development

occur simultaneously. The acquisition of skills in one area supports the acquisition of skills in the other

Ways to provide a print-rich environment in the classroom

displaying children’s names and work, newspapers and magazines, instructional charts, written schedules, signs and labels, printed songs, poems, and rhymes, using graphic organizers, using big books

What are the benefits of print and book awareness for children

helps understand the connection between print and text, understanding that print runs from left to right, a book has parts and an author and contains a story, that illustrations carry meaning, letters and words are different, words and sentences are separated by punctuation, different forms have difference functions, print represents spoken language, and how to hold a book

Decoding

the method or strategy used to make sense of printed words and figure out how to correctly pronounce them. Does not require an understanding of the meaning of a word, only a knowledge of how to recognize and pronounce it

Fluency

the goal of literacy development. The ability to read accurately and quickly. The student is able to move to the next level and understand the meaning of a text

How teachers can support fluency

providing reading experiences and discussions that increase in difficulty, reading practice, word analysis practice, instruction on reading comprehension strategies, and opportunities to express responses through writing

Vocabulary

a larger vocabulary is associated with better reading comprehension and an enhanced ability to communicate in speech and writing

Teaching techniques that can be used to promote vocabulary development

using prior knowledge, defining a word and providing multiple examples, showing students how to use context clues, providing instructions on prefixes, roots, and suffixes, using a dictionary and thesaurus, providing a print-rich environment, studying a group of words related to a single subject

Affixes

syllables attached to the beginning or end of a word to make a derivative or inflectional form of a word. (ex.prefixes and suffixes)

Prefix

a syllable that appears at the beginning of a word that creates a specific meaning in combination with the root or base word

Root word

the base of a word to which affixes can be added

Suffix

a syllable that appears at the end of a word that creates a specific meaning in combination with the root or base word

Noun suffixes

can change a verb or adjective to a noun (ex. Argument, auctioneer)

Verb suffixes

change other words to verbs and denote to make or to perform the act of (ex. Sofen, dignify)

Adjectival suffixes

change other words to adjectives (ex. careful)

Strategies a teacher can use to improve reading comprehension

model strategies, ask questions, ask student to predict, ask if they can retell, have students retell the story

The role of prior knowledge in determining appropriate literacy education

knowledge from a student’s long-term memory can contribute to comprehension

Four theories of language development

learning approach, linguistic approach, cognitive approach, sociocognitive approach

Learning approach of language development

assumes that language is first learned by imitating the speech of adults. It is then solidified in school through drills about the rules of language structures

Linguistic approach of language development

championed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, this theory proposes that the ability to use language is innate. This is a biological approach rather than one based on cognition or social patterning

Cognitive approach of language development

developed in the 1970s based on the work of Piaget, this theory states that children must develop appropriate cognitive skills before they can acquire language

Sociocognitive approach of language development

in the 1970s, some researchers proposed that language development is a complex interaction of linguistic, social, and cognitive influences.

List effective classroom practices that benefit second language acquisition

use simple and repeated terms, relate instruction to the cultures of ESL children, use gestures or nonverbal actions when modeling, provide instruction in all curriculum areas, establish consistent routines, integrate ESL children into group activities with non-ESL children, explain action as activities happen so that a word to action relationship is established, employ multisensory learning

Explain three additional considerations related to learning by listening that are especially relevant to ESL students

avoid colloquialisms and abbreviated or slang terms, stop to clarify points, repeating new or difficult words, and defining words that may not be known, and support the spoken word with as many visuals as possible

Top-down processing

the listener refers to background and global knowledge to figure out the meaning of a message

Bottom-up processing

the listener figures out the meaning of a message by using “data” obtained from what is said

Three steps of listening lessons

pre-listening activity, the listening activity, post-listening activity

Pre-listening activity

establishes the purpose of the lesson and engages students’ background knowledge.

Listening activity

requires the listener to obtain information and then immediately do something with that information

Post-listening activity

evaluation process that allows students to judge how well they did with the listening task

List some teaching strategies to help ESL student understand subject matter through speaking

read aloud and have students verbally summarize, place ESL students with English-speaking students, ask students to explain why the subject matter is important to them and where they see it fitting into their lives

List some teaching strategies to help ESL students understand subject matter through reading

have bilingual dictionaries, have content books written in students’ native languages, have students verbally summarize something that is read to them

List some general teaching strategies that can be used in any classroom to help ESL students

partner English-speaking students with ESL students, encourage questions when they don’t understand something, dictate key sentences, alternative difficult and easy task, ask ESL students to label objects associated with content areas, such as maps

List effective methods for teaching students vocabulary and promoting improved reading comprehension

explicit instruction of new vocabulary, explicitly preparing students for reading activities, peer discussions, employing motivational strategies

Importance of pre-reading and while reading activities

activating prior knowledge, generating questions, discussing vocabulary, make predictions, identity a purpose, engage students with the text, self-monitor reading comprehension, summarizing texts

Describe a variety of post-reading activities

reflect on the content in the lesson, have students consider and study guiding readings, evaluating their predictions, engage in discussions, summarize or retell the narrative

Discuss the steps involved in providing direct instruction

give the students a definition of the strategy and explain it, explain what purpose is served by the strategy during the act of reading, identify the most important characteristics of the strategy, give students concrete examples, use think-alouds to model the use of the strategy, give students guided practice in applying the strategy

Mindless reading

many students who struggle with reading mistakenly are simply “zoning out” while moving their eyes across the page.

Ways teachers can support critical reading

frequent recaps, comprehension checks, discussion, applying content to their own lives

Readability

refers to how easily an individual can read a passage. Can be determined using factors such as the number of words, syllables per word, and difficult or uncommon words in a passage

Algorithms for evaluating readability

Flesch Reading Ease and Gunning Fog Scale Level both use syllable count and the length of the sentences in a passage to determine readability

Flesch Reading Ease

measured on a 100 point scale, with different ranges of scores corresponding to a certain level of education.

Gunning Fog Scale Level

gives a text a score that corresponds to a category of difficulty

Dale-Chall Score

evaluates text based on whether or not the words within it are common or not

Fry Readability Grade Level

analyzes a passage based on the number of syllables and sentences per 100 words

Paired reading strategy

each student silently reads a portion of text, one summarizes the main point, and then the other must agree or disagree and explain why until they reach an agreement. Then each person takes a turn identifying details that support their main idea. Then each step is repeated with the roles reversed

Active reading strategy of text coding (or text monitoring)

as they read, students make text code notations on post-its or in the margins of the text. Teachers should model text coding.

Denotation

the literal meaning, or dictionary definition, of a word whereas

Connotation

the feelings or thoughts associated with a word that are not included in its literal definition

List strategies for promoting students’ interest in literature

incorporating student choice in materials, peer discussions, encourage students to appreciate the value of the literature they are reading

List methods for teaching students writing skills

explicitly, modeling, collaborative writing, setting specific goals, teach students to combine sentences, process writing approach

List strategies for helping students improve their writing skills

considering audience, inquiry strategies, prewriting strategies, mnemonic devices

Instructional methods that teachers can use to guide students in writing informative/explanatory text

use mentor texts, model composition employ scaffolding

Skills students must learn in order to write in the informative/explanatory mode

locate and select pertinent information from sources, combine experiences and existing knowledge with new information, incorporate information into their writing, comparing and contrasting, making transitions, citing scenarios

Skills that teachers need in order to teach this writing mode using mentor texts

“read like writers”, find mentor texts, know grade-level writing standards

Guidelines teachers can use to introduce inquiry and discussion related to informative/explanatory writing

pose questions, assign or have students choose topics

Performance skills expected of students for informative/explanatory writing

researching information, read informational texts, use writing as a learning tool

Types of questions that teachers can have writing students ask themselves to help choose what content they will include

what do readers need to know, what kinds of evidence they need, what points might cause the reader to disagree,

Considerations and their rationales that teachers should explain to students in writing for various occasions, purposes, and audiences

organizing ideas, providing evidence, correcting grammar, word choice

Importance of voice and style in writing and methods for helping students develop their own writing voice and style

include elements such as tone, mood, literary devices and figurative language, grows from personal experiences and perspectives

Standards educators must abide by when using digital resources and the purpose of these standards

ethical and legal standards, copyright laws and standards of fair use and liability

Benefits of teaching students to use their writing skills outside of the classroom and encouraging students to write for leisure

can be used for a variety of purposes, such as personal growth, reflection, learning, problem solving, and expression

Benefits of encouraging students to write for personal purposes

helps students learn about themselves by leading them to understand and consider their thoughts more intentionally, can promote problem solving

Techniques that teachers can use to ensure that students listen actively and participate productively in group discussions

consider students’ cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and social development levels, model and explain appropriate behaviors for discussions, establish clear ground rules

Rationale for active student listening

involves constructing meaning out of what is heard, being reflective and creative in considering and manipulating information, and making competent decisions rich in ideas

Identify shared properties of listening and learning

both social and reciprocal. Both allow and require students to process and consider what they hear and stimulate their curiosity about subsequent information

Identify ways for teachers to incorporate active student listening into a lesson

clarify big picture, identify learning objectives, give a phrase to summarize, review main concepts

Describe the teaching practice of whole-class learning circles

articulating central discussion points, identifying next steps in thought, question forming, analysis, and action, guiding student analysis, asking students questions

Identify some educator techniques to improve and augment classroom discussions

posing questions rather than making comments, restating topics and questions when needed, introducing new questions related to identified topics, identify specific learning goals

Describe some teaching strategies to encourage discussion and ways of evaluating their effectiveness

walking students through wrong answers, provide incentives for contributing, assign different students to lead the discussion

Instructional techniques to promote student discussion

give students time to prepare for discussion, tell them discussion topics the day before

Techniques to use class self-evaluation of class discussions

discuss what makes a good or bad discussion, informal surveys and share responses with the class

Major advantages of using observational checklists as informal assessments of student learning

informal, naturalistic observation enables teachers to record behaviors that traditional written tests cannot include

Identify some ways that teachers can apply research-based strategies for assessing student learning in procedural knowledge, scientific inquiry, thinking skills, and verbal knowledge

supplying situations that require students to correctly apply principles, rules, and procedures to everyday problems, give students problems that require them to speculate, inquire, and formulate hypotheses, ask students to give summaries of different kinds of strategies, require informal recall, restatement, and comprehension

Three periods of communication development normally occur within a child’s first five years of life

in the first period, babies communicate through behaviors such as crying and gazing. In the second period, 6-18 month olds can coordinate their attention and have purposeful communication. In the third period, children use language as their main way of communicating and learning

Milestones of normal language development in children by the time they are 2 years old

have a vocabulary of about 150 to 300 words, can name various familiar objects, can use at least two prepositions, use noun-verb sentences, use pronouns, can respond to some commands

General aspects of human language abilities from before birth to five years of age

developing fetus can hear voices, babies and young children are predisposed to greater sensitivity to human sounds than other sounds, orienting them toward the language spoken around them, they absorb their environmental language completely

Milestones of typical child language development by the age of 6 months

respond to their name, turn their heads and eyes towards the sources of human voices they hear, and respond accordingly to friendly and angry tones of voice

Milestones of typical child language development by the age of 12 months

toddlers can understand and follow simple directions, especially when these are accompanied by physical and/or vocal cues. Can intentionally use one or more words with the correct meaning

Milestones of typical child language development by the age of 18 months

acquired a vocabulary of roughly 5 to 20 words. Use nouns in their speech most of the time, very likely to repeat certain words and/or phrases over and over. Typically able to follow simple verbal commands without needing as many visual or auditory cues

Developmental milestones associated with the normal language acquisition and communication of children at the age of 3 years

vocabulary of 900-1000 words, use pronouns correctly, use more verbs frequently, apply past tense to verbs and plurality to nouns, can use at least 3 prepositions, can name main body parts, can comprehend most simple questions and tell about their experiences, can say their name, age, and sex

Milestones of typical language development in children at the age of 4 years

can name familiar animals, use at least 4 prepositions, can name familiar objects, identifies colors, can repeat four syllable words, verbalize as they are being active, can understand comparative concepts, can understand simple commands, frequently repeats speech

Milestones indicating typical language development in 5 year old children

more descriptive words, including adjectives and adverbs, understand common antonyms, repeats longer sentences, can follow consecutive, uninterrupted commands, understands concepts of time, uses relatively long senses and complex sentences that are mostly grammatically correct

Strategies for approaching literary analysis and characteristics of strong literary analysis

narrowing the focus to a specific element, focusing on character or plot development, applying critical theory to a text

Literary theme

implicit and inferred by the reader through analyzing