Ap Psychology Unit 2

bottom up processing

Begins with sensory input, building perception from the smallest pieces of sensory information (like a puzzle).

top down processing

Uses prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences to interpret sensory information.

schemas

Mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

perceptual set

A readiness to perceive things a certain way, based on expectations, emotions, or cultural background.

gestalt psychology

Focuses on how people naturally organize sensory information into meaningful wholes

figure and ground

Distinguishing an object (figure) from its background (ground).

proximity

We group nearby objects together.

similarity

We group similar-looking items.

closure

We fill in gaps to see a complete object.

good figure

objects grouped together tend to be perceived as a single figure. tendency to simplify

continuation

when there is an intersection between two or more objects, people tend to perceive each object as a single uninterrupted object

selective attention 

focusing on one thing among many distractions

cocktail party effect

Ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy room.

inattentional blindness

failing to notice visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere

depth perception

the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge distances

visual cliff

A classic experiment used to test infants’ depth perception by placing them on a platform with a “drop” covered by clear glass.

binocular cues

depth cues that require both eyes to work together

retinal disparity

The difference between images in the left and right eyes; the brain uses this difference to calculate depth.

convergence

As objects get closer, our eyes turn inward. The brain interprets this muscle movement as a cue for depth.

monocular cues

Depth cues that can be seen with just one eye.

relative size

Objects that appear smaller are perceived as farther away.

interposition

When one object overlaps another, it’s perceived as closer.

texture gradient

objects with finer details are seen as closer

relative clarity 

Hazy or blurry objects seem farther away than clearer objects.

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, like railroad tracks

perceptual constancies

Recognizing objects as constant despite changes in lighting, distance, or angle.

color constancy

we perceive colors as stable even when lighting changes

shape constancy

objects maintain the same shape despite changes in viewpoint 

size constancy

An object appears the same size even as it moves closer or farther away.

apparent motion

Perception of movement when there is none.

stroboscopic movement

Quick succession of slightly different images that appear to move, like a flipbook or movie frames.

phi phenomenon

Lights blinking on and off in sequence, creating the illusion of movement.

autokinetic effect

A stationary point of light appears to move in a dark room because of minor eye movements.

perceptual adaptation

The brain’s ability to adjust to altered sensory environments.

encoding

acquiring new information

storage

retaining the information

retrieval

getting the information back out

explicit memories

facts and experiences that we knowingly declare and recognize; things that can be described and easily explained to others

episodic

remembering “episodes of your life” - first kiss, graduation, etc

semantic

remembering acquired knowledge through the knowledge of language (words, sentences, etc.) - state capitals, multiplication facts, etc.

implicit memories

unconscious or automatic memory; more challenging to describe or explain to others.

procedural

memory of how to do things without really thinking about it - riding a bike, tying your shoe, knowing how to get home from school, etc.

prospective memories

memory of intentions; remembering “to do” things. (Remembering you have a party to go to next weekend, knowing that a holiday is coming up, knowing that you have a test next week, etc.)

long term potentiation

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; thought to be the neural basis of learning and memory.

automatic processing

without any conscious awareness

effortful processing

active processing that requires sustained effort

structural

surface level; focuses on what words, faces, etc look like

phonemic

adds sound/words with no meaning

semantic

establishes meaning through effortful memory and rehearsal

mnemonic devices

aid in encoding info into working and long-term memory.

method of loci

memory palaces

chunking

improves process of encoding by grouping things into meaningful chunks or structures. (categories & hierarchies)

spacing effect

the “timeframe” for encoding can affect how well it is consolidated into memory. massed & distributed

serial position effect

the order of information can affect what is encoded and more likely to be remembered.

primacy

beginning of list

recency

end of list

maintenance rehearsal

over time

elaborative rehearsal

promoting meaning

autobiographical memory

Combination of episodic and semantic (explicit) memories explaining why memories with meaningful connections are more memorable

amnesia

memory loss, usually temporary.

retrograde

can remember new info, but cannot remember info form before incident

anterograde

can’t remember new info, but can remember info from before incident

alzheimer’s disease

brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills

infantile amnesia

as adults, memory of our first three years is blank; as children, can’t remember as much as we get older

recall

remembering without cues; retrieved from an earlier time; fill-in-the-blank

recognition

relies on retrieval cues; identifying previously learned; multiple choice

context dependent memory

same environmental space as encoding

mood-congruent memory

same mood as encoding

state dependent memory

same physical state as encoding

testing effect

practice tests throughout learning/studying

metacognition

awareness of one’s thought processes and how you learn, how you remember things, etc.

hermann ebbinghaus

experiments on memory led to development of the Forgetting Curve that shows exponential loss of info shortly after learning it.

interference

clutter

proactive (forward-acting) interference

prior learning disrupts recall of new learning.

retroactive (backward-acting) interference

new learning disrupts recall of old learning

repression (freud)

to defend the ego from distress

source amnesia

(can’t remember where a memory came from - think about songwriter lawsuits)

imagination inflation

(false memory; the finding that imagining an event which never happened can increase confidence that it actually occurred)

cognition

the mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and using information. (learning, memory, problem-solving, decision-making)

metacognition

thinking about our thinking. helps us evaluate how we’re solving problems (like self-checking during a test)

concepts

mental groupings of similar things. (fruit = apples, bananas, oranges)

prototypes

helps categorize and understand the world. within a concept. (bird = crow or robin. one wouldn’t really think an ostrich)

schema 

mental framework that helps you organize and interpret information (restaurant = entering, ordering, eating and paying)

assimilation

when new information fits into your schema. (ex. calling a zebra a striped horse fits it into your horse schema)

accommodation 

when new information forces you to change your schema. (ex. learning that a zebra is a different animal)

algorithms

step by step procedures that guarantee a solution. (ex. following a recipe exactly)

heuristics 

mental shortcuts that save time but don’t always lead to the right answer 

representatives heuristic 

judging how likely something is based on how well it matches a prototype. (ex. assuming someone with glasses is more likely to be a librarian than a football player)

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. (ex. thinking plane crashes are common after seeing one on the news)

priming

exposure to one thing influences your response to another. seeing positive words like “happy: might make you more generous

framing

how information is worded affects choices. (people are more likely to choose a surgery with a “90% success rate” than one with a “10% failure rate” despite same outcome)

gambler’s fallacy

believing that past events affect future outcomes (thinking a coin flip is due to land heads after several tails)

sunk-cost fallacy

ticking with a bad choice because you’ve already invested time, money, or effort (continuing a boring movie because you paid for the ticket)

mental set

using the same solutions that worked before, even if they’re not effective now.

functional fixedness

seeing objects as having only their usual function (struggling to use a book as a doorstop because you only think of it as something to read)

divergent thinking

generating multiple solutions to a problem. (brainstorming different uses for a paperclip)

convergent thinking

narrowing down options to find the single best solution (solving a riddle)

executive functions

help us plan, prioritize, and control impulses. brain’s CEO, helping you focus on long term goals and avoid distractions (studying for a test instead of playing video games shows strong executive function)