Biology Lesson 4, Cancer-stages-of-cells

All organisms reproduce for one reason–

to ensure survival of their species.

mitosis cytokinesis

m phase involves two processes-

____(nuclear division)

_____(cytoplasmic division)

Reproduction

it makes use of the process of cell division

cri-du-chat syndrome

5p minus syndrome

apoptosis

A type of cell death in which a series of molecular steps in a cell lead to its death

To be able to produce offspring

To generate new cells that will replace worn out or damaged cells

Cell division is important for two reasons

Interphase and Cell division

The cell cycle is divided into two main stages:

Interphase

is a non dividing stage

Gap 1(G1)Phase

Synthesis(S)Phase

Gap2(G2)Phase

Three main parts of interphase

Interphase

is the growth period in the cell cycle characterized by cell preparation by replication of its genetic information of it's organelles

G1 Phase

Cell carries out its normal metabolic functions(example: during G1 phase, an intestinal cell performs its primary duty to absorb nutrients)

G1 phase

Cells increase their height

G1 Phase

Cells prepares for DNA synthesis

G1 Phase

Growth and metabolic roles

S phase

DNA synthesis(replication) occurs; cells make copy of its genetic material in the form of nuclear DNA

S phase

Cells spend considerable amount of time and energy to make copies of its chromosomes

S Phase

Replication of DNA occurs

G2 Phase

Growth and more preparation

G2 Phase

Cells continue to carry out their normal functions and also undergo further growth and synthesis of RNA and proteins

G2 Phase

This stage contains a critical “checkpoint” before transitioning to the next stage with is cellular division

Cytokinesis

Cells split into two daughter cells

mitosis

somatic cells(also known as body cells)

meosis

sex cells(also known as gametes)

In Mitosis in cell division

Prophase–

chromosomes are condensed

Metaphase

chromosomes align at cell centres

Anaphase

The duplicated DNA segregates

Telophase

chromosomes are decondensed

G0(Gap 0)

Resting Phase

Cells may leave enter phase and enter into non dividing quiescent phase

What is the Go (Gap Zero) stage of the cell cycle?

A stage in the cell cycle where cells stop dividing but continue to perform normal functions. Highly differentiated cells like neuron and heart muscle cells are permanently in this stage, while immune cells such as lymphocytes can remain in it for years until activated by an invader.

lymphocytes

a type of white blood cell crucial for the immune system

cell cycle checkpoints

Cell cycle checkpoints are present at various times in the cycle to prevent mutations/chromosomal aberrations and ensure major events occur at correct times, preventing cells from proceeding to the next stage unless all criteria have been met.

G1 checkpoint

also known as the Restriction point, checks for DNA damage, favorable conditions, and the availability of growth factors before a cell enters the S phase. If conditions are unfavorable, it can direct the cell into quiescence (Go).

S Checkpoint

The S Checkpoint checks for DNA damage before or during replication and prevents the reduplication of DNA.

G2 Point

Allows entry into mitosis, checks DNA damage and ensures DNA is duplicated

M Checkpoint

During mitosis, the_____allows entry into anaphase and ensures all chromosomes are aligned at the metaphase plate and attached to the spindle fiber.

Checkpoints or control points

are moments when the cell con "check" its internal conditions and "decide" whether to progress to the next phase or remain. It is similar to what happens during a police operation checkpoint. When you have met the requirements asked by the police officer in-charge, you can go pass the checkpoint.

Cancer

most common disorder we know todays but without cure yet

Cancer

referes to a group of disease characaterized by uncontrolled and abnormal cell division.

Cancer

occurs when there is disruption in the cell cycle. Instead of stoppung and starting at appropriate points, cancerous cells divide continuosly until a disorganized solid mass of cells called tumor is formed

tumor

disorganized solid mass of cells

Benign and malignant tumors

Tumors can be categorized as

Benign Tumors

are cancer cells that remain clustered

together, which may be harmless or not and can probably be

cured when removed out of the body

DNA

___is within the cell

testosterone

estrogen

- a primary sex hormone and androgen in

-category of sex hormone responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics.

-

malignant tumors

are cancer cells that has break away or

metastasized(spreads). This cancer cells are transported to the

bloodstream of the lymphatic system to the other parts and

form more tumors.

Malignant

cancerous tumor, spreads into nearby tissues, glands and other parts of the body

Benign

non cancerous, localized does not spread and affects other tissues

Cancer

is caused mainly by changes

or mutations to the DNA within

cells.

Lifestyle factors

Family history, inheritance and genetics

some genetic disorder

exposure to certain viruses

environmental exposure

risk factors contributing to cancer

Lifestyle factors

smoking, high fat diet, working with toxic chemicals

exposure to certain viruses

cervical cancer which is caused by human papilloma virus

environmental exposure

exposure to pesticides and fertilizers, radiations and carcinogens

why tumors is dangerous inside the body

if the cancer cells are in the brain, they do not perform their

supposed function which is to transmit electrical signals for

response. Moreover, if they continue to grow and form

tumors, it can cramp the brain in the limited skull. This

might affect the other parts of the brain and their functions

because cancer cells also compete for nutrients and blood

supply with other healthy cells. If left unchecked, it may

hinder the proper functioning of the body

Chemotherapy

– uses certain drugs to

kill actively dividing cells. This

procedure is systemic, which means

that drugs are introduced throughout

the body orally (taken by mouth) or

intravenously (injection).

vomiting

loss of appetite

hair loss

anemia

memory impairment

deterioration of skin and nails

Side effects of chemotherapy:

Surgery

involves removal of

the cancerous body part

Debulking surgery

staging surgery

diagnostic surgery

palliative surgery

Types of Cancer surgery

Debulking surgery

is mainly performed

in cases where the surgeon cannot

remove the entire tumor as it could

damage the bo

dy.

Debulking surgery

a procedure where as much of a cancerous tumor as possible is removed, but not necessarily all of it. It's used when completely removing the tumor might cause significant damage to the body or when the cancer has spread

staging surgery

is

mainly done to figure out

the size of the tumor and

to find the extent of cancer.

Diagnostic surgery

:This

surgery is mainly done for a

biopsy which is the main way

to diagnose cancer.

Palliative surgery

as the name

suggests is a surgery to palliate or

give relief from symptoms caused by

the tumor

palliative surgery

a surgical intervention focused on improving a patient's quality of life by alleviating symptoms and reducing suffering, rather than aiming for a cure

Radiation Therapy

involves the

exposure of X-rays to kill cancer

cells and shrink the tumor size.

brachytherapy

also known as internal radiation therapy, is a cancer treatment where radioactive sources are placed inside or near the tumor

GENETIC DISORDERS

•A change in the number or

structure of chromosomes can

dramatically change the traits of an

organism and can cause serious

problems. Abnormal chromosomes

most often happen as a result of an

error during cell division

errors during dividing of sex cells(meiosis)

errors during dividing of other cells(mitosis)

exposure to substances that can cause birth defects(teratogens)

Chromosome abnormalities often

happen due to one or more of these:

meiosis

errors during dividing of sex cells

mitosis

errors during dividing of other cells

teratogens

exposure to substances that can cause birth defects

Haemophilia

uncontrolled bleedings,

Hemophilia is a rare disorder in which the blood doesn't clot in the typical way because it doesn't have enough blood-clotting proteins (clotting factors). If you have hemophilia, you might bleed for a longer time after an injury than you would if your blood clotted properly

Karyotyping

•is the process by which photographs of

chromosomes are taken in order to

determine the chromosome complement of

an individual, including the number of

chromosomes and any abnormalities

karyotype

is the general appearance of the complete set of chromosomes in the cells of a species or in an individual organism, mainly including their sizes, numbers, and shapes

aneuploidy

monosomy

Numerical abnormality also called

_____, a condition which occurs

when an individual has a missing

chromosome from a pair (______) or

has more than two chromosomes of a

pair (trisomy, tetrasomy, etc)

Female, Male, Female, Male

X-

Y-

XX-

XY-

Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

• The most common disorder of trisomy is

____, wherein the 21st

chromosome has three instead of two

chromosomes.

• Most cases of _____are not due

to inheritance but on random mistakes

during formation of reproductive cells of the

parents.

Trisomy 21

down syndrome

Brachycephaly

is an infant skull deformity characterized by a lower-than-normal ratio of the skull's length to its width.

Clinodactyly

incurving of fifth finger

Down syndrome

short neck, excess skin at the back of the neck. Flattened facial profile and nose. Small head, ears and mouth. Upwarding slanting eyes

down syndrome

narrow palate

Down syndrome

Overfolded helix of ear. Short hands and feet

Turner Syndrome

45,XO

Turner syndrome(45, XO)

A condition that affects only female as a result of one X chromosomes(sex chromosomes) is missing or partially missing.

Turner syndrome

Physical manifestations: Webbed neck, short stature, swollen hands and feet, some have skeletal abnormalities, kidney problems, and/or congenital heart defect.

Minimal breast development

small stature

-small mandible

-high arched palate

-low set ears

-low hairline

ovarian dysgenesis

by streak gonads (ovaries with little to no follicles) and premature ovarian failure, is a common feature of Turner syndrome. In Turner syndrome, the ovaries typically do not develop properly, leading to absent or incomplete puberty, lack of breast development, and infertility.

Bicuspid aortic valve

About 30-50% of individuals with Turner syndrome are born with a bicuspid aortic valve, where the valve has only two leaflets instead of the normal three

Klinefelter Syndrome (47, XXY)

• A condition resulting from two or more X

chromosomes in males.

• Manifestations are typically more severe

if three or more X chromosomes are

present as in (48, XXXY) or (49, XXXXY)

Klinefelter syndrome(47, XXY)

Physical manifestation

-infertility and small poorly functioning testicles

-weaker muscle, greater height, poor coordination

-lack of beard and body hair

-long arms and legs

-hip females like

-lack of pubic hair

-gynecomastia

Gynecomastia

enlarged male breast

Trisomy X Syndrome(XXX)

Characterized by the presence of

extra X chromosome in each cell

of a female

Trisomy X Syndrome (47, XXX)

* Often taller than normal

* Affected individuals have usually mild symptoms to none at all

* Occasionally there are learning difficulties, delayed speech, decreased muscle tone, seizures, or kidney probl

ems

delayed motor development, low iq, delayead speech, adhd, abdominal pain

Signs and symptoms of triple x syndrome

Patau syndrome(trisomy 13)

Clenched hands, cleft lip

or palate, extra fingers

or toes (polydactyly),

hernias, kidney, wrist or

scalp problems, low-set

ears, small head,

undescended testis.

Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13)

•Caused by having an additional

copy of chromosome 13 in some

or all of the body’s cells.

Edward Syndrome (Trisomy 18

•Caused by having additional

copy of chromosome 18.

Polydactyly

extra fingers or toes

Edward syndrome (trisomy 18)

overlapping fingers

club feet

small physical size

heart/lungs/ kidneys abnormalities(defects)

low set ears

decreased muscle tones

severe developmental delays

chest deformity

slowed growth

small head and jaw

Deletion

Duplication

translocation

inversion

– a portion of a chromosome is missing

or deleted;

• – segment of a chromosome is

repeated twice;

• – transfer of a section of one

chromosome to non-homologous chromosome;

• – a section of the chromosome becomes

changed by rotation at 180 degrees.