Unit 3: Development and Learning

Stability and Change Across Lifespan

The study of traits and behaviors that remain consistent versus those that evolve over time.

Nature and Nurture

The interplay between genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in shaping development.

Continuous and Discontinuous

Continuous development involves gradual change, while discontinuous development occurs in distinct stages.

Longitudinal Studies

Research that studies the same individuals over an extended period to observe changes.

Cross-Sectional Studies

Research that compares individuals of different ages at one point in time.

Teratogens

Harmful agents (like drugs or viruses) that can cause birth defects during prenatal development.

Fine motor coordination

the ability to control small muscle movements, typically involving the hands and fingers, allowing for tasks such as writing, drawing, buttoning clothing, or manipulating small objects.

Gross motor coordination

the control of larger muscle groups that enable actions like walking, running, jumping, and maintaining balance and posture.

Physical development and maturation

Refers to biological growth and the process of becoming physically mature.

Infant reflexes

Inborn behaviors such as rooting, which helps babies locate a nipple.

Rooting Reflex

A newborn's automatic response to touch near their mouth, where they turn their head and open their mouth in search of a nipple. This reflex helps with feeding and is one of the inborn survival mechanisms in infants.

Visual Cliff for Depth Perception

A research tool used to study depth perception in infants, involving a platform with a "cliff-like" drop covered by transparent glass. This experiment demonstrated that infants, as young as a few months old, could perceive depth and were hesitant to crawl over the "cliff," indicating an early ability to detect and respond to depth cues.

Critical and sensitive periods

Time frames when specific environmental stimuli have the most impact on development.

Imprinting

A rapid form of early learning where an animal forms a strong attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually during a critical period after birth.

Adolescent physical development

Changes during puberty, including growth spurts and hormonal changes.

Puberty

The developmental stage marked by physical and hormonal changes that lead to sexual maturity and reproductive capability.

Primary sex characteristics

Organs necessary for reproduction.

Secondary sex characteristics

Traits that emerge during puberty, like body hair and voice changes.

Menarche

The first menstrual period.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation in males.

Menopause

The end of a woman's menstrual cycle and reproductive capability

Overall physical decline later in life

Gradual reduction in mobility, reaction time, and sensory abilities like vision and hearing.

Piaget’s theory

A theory of cognitive development involving four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Schema

A mental framework for organizing and interpreting information.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to fit new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (birth to about 2 years), during which infants learn about the world through sensory experiences and motor actions. Key milestones include the development of object permanence and the understanding that objects and people exist even when out of sight.

Object permanence

The understanding that objects exist even when not visible (sensorimotor stage).

Preoperational stage

Stage where children think symbolically but lack logical reasoning.

Mental symbols

Using symbols to represent objects or ideas.

Pretend play

Imaginative play where children act out roles or use objects to represent others, common in early childhood.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite shape changes.

Reversibility

Understanding that actions can be reversed to return to their original state, developing in the concrete operational stage.

Egocentrism

Difficulty in seeing things from others' perspectives.

Animism

Attributing life to inanimate objects.

Theory of mind

Understanding that others have thoughts and feelings different from one's own.

Concrete operational stage

Children develop logical thinking about concrete events.

Formal operational stage

Ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically

Vygotsky’s theory

A cognitive development theory emphasizing the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning, with a focus on guidance and support from others.

Scaffolding

Support provided during the learning process.

Sociocultural Context of Learning

The idea that learning is influenced by the social and cultural environment, including language, tools, and shared practices.

4o

Zone of proximal development

The range of tasks a learner can perform with guidance but not independently.

Cognitive Changes with Age

Alterations in mental abilities as people age, including declines in processing speed and memory (fluid intelligence) but stability or growth in accumulated knowledge and skills (crystallized intelligence).

Fluid intelligence

Problem-solving and reasoning abilities, which decline with age.

Crystallized intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and skills, which tend to remain stable.

Dementia

A decline in cognitive abilities, including memory and reasoning.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in a language.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Semantics

The study of meaning in language.

Grammar

The set of rules governing language structure

Syntax

The arrangement of words into sentences.

Universal Language Stages

Predictable stages of language development in children, including cooing, babbling, one-word speech, two-word phrases, and full sentences, reflecting innate linguistic abilities.

Cooing

Early vowel-like sounds made by infants.

Babbling

Repetition of consonant-vowel combinations (e.g., "ba-ba").

One-word speech

Using single words to communicate (e.g., "milk" to mean "I want milk").

Telegraphic speech

Early speech stage where toddlers use short, simple sentences (e.g., "Want cookie").

Overgeneralization of language rules

Applying language rules to all cases (e.g., "goed" instead of "went").

Ecological Systems Theory

A framework by Bronfenbrenner explaining how different systems (micro to macro) influence individual development.

Microsystem

Immediate environment (family, school).

Mesosystem

Interactions between microsystems.

Exosystem

Indirect influences (e.g., parents’ workplace).

Macrosystem

Cultural and societal influences.

Chronosystem

Changes over time (life transitions).

Parenting Styles

Patterns of caregiving that influence child development

Authoritarian

Strict, high control, low warmth.

Authoritative

Balanced, high warmth, and high expectations

Permissive

High warmth, low control.

Attachment Styles

Patterns of emotional bonds formed in early relationships, influencing future connections.

Secure Attachment

Confident and trusting in relationships.

Insecure Attachment

Difficulty in trust and connection

Avoidant

Emotionally distant.

Anxious

Clingy, fear of abandonment.

Disorganized

Inconsistent or fearful behavior.

Temperament

A child’s innate personality traits, such as mood and adaptability.

Separation Anxiety

Distress when separated from caregivers, common in infancy.

Attachment (Harlow’s Study)

Demonstrated that contact comfort, not just food, is crucial for attachment in monkeys.

Parallel and Pretend Play

Early childhood play involving independent activity (parallel) or imaginative scenarios (pretend).

Adolescent Thinking

Cognitive development during adolescence, marked by abstract reasoning, critical thinking, and self-reflection.

Adolescent Egocentrism

A heightened self-focus in adolescence

Imaginary Audience

Belief that others are always watching them.

Personal Fable

Belief in their uniqueness and invulnerability.

Social Clock

Societal norms for timing of life events (e.g., marriage, career).

Emerging Adulthood

Developmental stage (18-25 years) for exploration of identity and independence.

Psychosocial Stages (Erikson)

Eight stages of development where individuals face key conflicts (e.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion) that shape personality and social relationships.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Developing basic trust in infancy.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

Independence in toddlerhood.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Exploration and initiative in early childhood.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Mastery and competence in school-age children.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Exploring personal identity in adolescence

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Forming close relationships in young adulthood.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Contributing to society in middle adulthood.

Integrity vs. Despair

Reflecting on life in older adulthood.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events in childhood that affect long-term health and development.

Identity Statuses (James Marcia)

Four categories of identity development based on exploration and commitment: achievement, diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium.

Achievement

Committed to identity after exploration.

Diffusion

Lack of direction or commitment.

Foreclosure

Commitment without exploration.

Moratorium

Active exploration without commitment.

Racial/Ethnic Identity

A person’s sense of belonging to a racial or ethnic group.

Sexual Orientation

A person’s enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others (e.g., heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual).