AP European History Ultimate Guide

The Renaissance

The Renaissance

A period of cultural and intellectual rebirth that began in Italy in the 14th century and spread throughout Europe until the 17th century. It was characterized by a renewed interest in classical learning, humanism, and the arts.

Renaissance Art

Characterized by a renewed interest in classical forms, realism, and humanism. Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael created works that emphasized the beauty and complexity of the human form. Perspective, chiaroscuro, and sfumato were techniques used to create depth and realism in paintings.

Italian Renaissance

A period of cultural and artistic growth in Italy from the 14th century to the 17th century, characterized by a renewed interest in classical art, literature, and philosophy, as well as a focus on humanism and individualism.

Northern Renaissance

Cultural and artistic movement in Northern Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries characterized by renewed interest in classical learning, individualism, and humanism.

Humanism

The belief in the importance of individualism, reason, and the study of classical literature and philosophy, which was a key characteristic of the Northern Renaissance.

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the establishment of new Protestant churches during the Northern Renaissance.

Printing Press

Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century, it revolutionized the way information was disseminated during the Renaissance period. It allowed for the quick and cheap production of books, leading to an increase in literacy rates and the spread of new ideas.

The Columbian Exchange

refers to the exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) and the New World (the Americas) following Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas in 1492.

slave trade

began in the 15th century when Portuguese traders started importing slaves from Africa to work on sugar plantations in the Atlantic islands and Brazil.

Triangular trade

This trade involved three continents

Commercial Revolution

A period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism that lasted from the 16th to the 18th century.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The rivalry between Spain and Portugal over control of the Americas led to the _______ in 1494, which divided the New World between the two powers.

Lollards

Followers of John Wycliffe who continued his work after his death.

Martin Luther

German theologian and reformer who was influenced by the ideas of Erasmus and played a key role in the Protestant Reformation.

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement in the 16th century that aimed to reform the Catholic Church and resulted in the formation of various Protestant denominations.

95 Theses

A list of criticisms of the Catholic Church's practices, written by Martin Luther in 1517, that sparked the Protestant Reformation.

Bible translation

The act of translating the Bible into German by Martin Luther, which made it accessible to the common people and contributed to the spread of Protestantism.

Predestination

The belief that God has already determined who will be saved and who will be damned, as held by John Calvin and other Protestant theologians.

Theocracy

A form of government in which religious leaders have the power and authority, as established by John Calvin in Geneva, Switzerland.

German Peasants' War

Peasants' uprising against feudal lords and the Catholic Church, led by Thomas Müntzer and other radical reformers, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of peasants and the suppression of the rebellion.

Schmalkaldic Wars

Conflict between the Holy Roman Empire and the Schmalkaldic League of Protestant princes, triggered by Emperor Charles V's attempt to enforce Catholicism in Protestant territories, ended with the defeat of the Schmalkaldic League and the reaffirmation of Catholicism as the official religion of the Empire.

Peace of Augsburg

Treaty between the Holy Roman Empire and the Schmalkaldic League, established the principle of "cuius regio, eius religio" (whose realm, his religion), allowed each prince to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism as the official religion of their territory, marked the end of religious warfare in Germany and the beginning of a period of relative stability.

French Wars of Religion

A series of conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in France from 1562 to 1598.

Massacre of Vassy

The first major conflict in the French Wars of Religion, where Catholic forces attacked a group of Huguenots during a worship service, killing over 60 people.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

A turning point in the French Wars of Religion, where thousands of Huguenots were killed in Paris and throughout France.

Edict of Nantes

A royal decree issued in 1598 by King Henry IV of France, which granted religious toleration to the Huguenots and ended the French Wars of Religion.

Thirty Years' War

A religious conflict fought primarily in Central Europe from 1618 to 1648 between the Protestants and Catholics, involving most of the major European powers of the time.

Peace of Westphalia

The treaty signed in 1648 that recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland and granted religious freedom to the Protestants, marking the end of the Thirty Years' War.

Holy Roman Empire

A major political entity in Europe that came to an end with the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War.

Reformation

A religious movement that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the establishment of Protestantism as a separate branch of Christianity.

Protestantism

A branch of Christianity that emerged as a result of the Reformation and rejected the authority of the Catholic Church.

Political Agenda

A set of goals or objectives that a state seeks to achieve through its policies and actions.

National Church

A church that is established and recognized by the state as the official religion of the country.

Suppression

The act of preventing or stopping something, often by force or intimidation.

Nobility

The highest social class, born into their status, owned land, collected taxes, and had political power.

Clergy

The second-highest social class, responsible for religious duties, exempt from taxes, and had access to education and healthcare.

Bourgeoisie

The middle class, consisting of merchants, bankers, and professionals, who had wealth and education but were not born into their status.

Peasants

The lowest social class, consisting of farmers and laborers who worked for the nobility and clergy, had little to no education, and were often poor.

Women

Not considered a social class, but placed within their respective social classes, had limited rights and opportunities, and their roles were primarily domestic.

Mannerism

An artistic style that emerged in the late Renaissance period, characterized by the distortion of proportions, exaggerated poses, and the use of artificial colors.

Establishment of the Jesuits (1540)

This order was founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola and became an important force in the Catholic Church, emphasizing education and missionary work.

Reforms of St. Teresa of Avila (16th century)

St. Teresa reformed the Carmelite order and emphasized the importance of personal prayer and devotion.

Anabaptists

They believed in adult baptism and the separation of church and state. They rejected infant baptism and the idea of a state church. They were persecuted by both Catholics and Protestants.

Radical Reformers

They were a diverse group of people who rejected the authority of the state and the established church. They believed in the direct guidance of the Holy Spirit and the importance of individual conscience.

Peasants

They were a group of poor farmers who were oppressed by the ruling class. They saw the Reformation as an opportunity to fight for their rights and improve their living conditions. They rebelled against the state and the church, but their uprisings were brutally suppressed.

Protestant Dissenters

They were Protestants who disagreed with the official doctrine of their church. They were often persecuted by the state and the established church. Some of them formed their own churches or joined other dissenting groups.

Waldensians

They were a group of Christians who lived in the Alps and rejected the authority of the Catholic Church. They were persecuted for their beliefs and were forced to flee to other parts of Europe.

Sola Scriptura

The Bible is the only source of divine revelation and the ultimate authority for Christian faith and practice.

Sola Fide

Salvation is by faith alone, and not by good works or any other means.

Sola Gratia

Salvation is a free gift of God's grace, and cannot be earned or deserved.

Anathema

A formal curse or condemnation, often associated with religious or supernatural beliefs.

Jesuit Order

Religious order founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534. Members take vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Known for their emphasis on education and missionary work.

Index of Prohibited Books

A list of books banned by the Catholic Church for their heretical or immoral content, first published in 1559 and abolished in 1966.

Ignatius of Loyola

Spanish priest and theologian who founded the Society of Jesus, also known as the Jesuits, in 1540. He believed in rigorous education and spiritual discipline, and his order became known for its missionary work and intellectual pursuits.

Dynastic Sovereignty

The power of monarchs or ruling families during the early modern period, where they had absolute power and were considered above the law.

Territorial Sovereignty

The power of the state over its territory, where the state's legitimacy was derived from its ability to protect its citizens and exercise power through a centralized bureaucracy.

Popular Sovereignty

The power of the people, where the government's legitimacy was derived from the consent of the governed and the people had the right to participate in the government.

English Civil War

A series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between 1642 and 1651 in England.

Royalists

Supporters of King Charles I during the English Civil War.

Absolutism

A political system in which a monarch holds absolute power and authority over the government and the people, with no checks or balances on their actions.

English Civil War

A conflict fought between 1642 and 1651 in England, Scotland, and Ireland. The war was between the Royalists (supporters of King Charles I) and the Parliamentarians (supporters of the English Parliament). The war resulted in the execution of King Charles I and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell.

King James I

• Scottish monarch who ruled England from 1603 to 1625

• Commissioned the King James Bible, a new translation of the Bible into English

• Known for his belief in the divine right of kings and his efforts to centralize power

• Encouraged colonization of North America, leading to the founding of Jamestown in Virginia

King Charles I

• King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1625 to 1649

• His reign was marked by conflicts with Parliament, which led to the English Civil War

• He was eventually captured, tried for treason, and executed in 1649

Oliver Cromwell

• English Commonwealth leader (1649-1658)

• Puritan commander in Civil War

• Executed King Charles ICreated Puritan republic in England

• Known for strict morals and religious zeal

Glorious Revolution

A bloodless coup in 1688 in which King James II of England was overthrown and replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange, leading to a constitutional monarchy and the Bill of Rights.

William of Orange

Dutch prince who led the Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule in the late 16th century. He fought for Protestantism and religious tolerance. He then became King of England in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution. Known as the "Father of the Fatherland" in the Netherlands

Bill of Rights of 1689

This document established limits on the power of the monarchy, protected the right to petition, and guaranteed fair trials and freedom from excessive bail and fines.

Agricultural Revolution

A period of human history when societies shifted from hunting and gathering to farming and domesticating animals. This led to the development of settled communities, surplus food production, and the rise of civilization.

Commercial Revolution

The period of European economic expansion in the 16th and 17th centuries characterized by the growth of trade, banking, and capitalism.

Mercantilism

Economic system of European colonial powers in 16th-18th century. Focus on exporting more than importing to accumulate wealth and power. Encouraged colonies to produce raw materials and prohibited manufacturing. Led to conflicts and exploitation of colonies.

Consumer Culture

The consumption-driven society where people's identities and status are defined by their buying habits and material possessions is known as ________.

War of Devolution (1667-1668)

Louis XIV's attempt to claim Spanish Netherlands through his wife's inheritance.

Franco-Dutch War (1672-1678)

France vs. Dutch Republic and allies, ended with Treaty of Nijmegen.

War of the Reunions (1683-1684)

France vs. Holy Roman Empire, ended with Truce of Ratisbon.

Nine Years' War (1688-1697)

France vs. Grand Alliance (England, Dutch Republic, Holy Roman Empire, Spain, Savoy), ended with Treaty of Ryswick.

War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

France vs. Grand Alliance (England, Dutch Republic, Holy Roman Empire, Portugal, Savoy, Spain), ended with Treaty of Utrecht.

Gustavus Adolphus

Swedish king known for military prowess during the Thirty Years' War. Implemented reforms in Sweden, including education and infrastructure. Killed in battle in 1632.

The Habsburgs

Royal dynasty that ruled over much of Europe from the 15th to the 20th century. They originated in Austria and expanded their empire through strategic marriages and conquests. They were known for their political and military power, as well as their patronage of the arts.

Divine Rights

A political and religious doctrine that asserts a monarch's legitimacy to rule is conferred directly by God, and therefore cannot be questioned or challenged by earthly authority.

French Absolutism

refers to the period of French history from the 16th century to the French Revolution in 1789, during which the French monarchy had absolute control over the country's political, social, and economic affairs.

Henry IV (1589-1610)

King of France from 1589 to 1610, he was the first monarch of the Bourbon dynasty. He converted to Catholicism to end the Wars of Religion and issued the Edict of Nantes, granting religious toleration to Protestants. He also focused on rebuilding France's economy and infrastructure.

Louis XIII (1610-1643)

French King who ruled from 1610 to 1643. He succeeded his father, Henry IV, at the age of 9. His reign was marked by the Thirty Years' War and the rise of Cardinal Richelieu, who became his chief minister. Louis XIII was known for his military campaigns and his efforts to centralize power in France. He was succeeded by his son, Louis XIV.

Louis XIV (1643-1715)

King of France from 1643 to 1715, known as the Sun King. He centralized power and established absolute monarchy, building the Palace of Versailles and expanding French territory.

Russian Absolutism

refers to the period of autocratic rule by the Tsars of Russia from the late 16th century until the early 20th century. It was characterized by the concentration of power in the hands of the Tsar, who had complete control over the government, the military, and the church.

Constitutionalism

A political philosophy that advocates for a government bound by a constitution that outlines the powers and limitations of its branches.

Battle of Edgehill (1642)

The first major battle of the war, fought to gain control of London.

Battle of Marston Moor (1644)

A decisive victory for the Parliamentarians, which secured their control of northern England.

Battle of Naseby (1645)

The most significant battle of the war, which resulted in the defeat of the Royalist army and the capture of King Charles I.

Individualism

Emphasizes the importance of individual autonomy and self-reliance, values personal achievement and self-expression, and rejects conformity and groupthink.

Intellectualism

Emphasizes the importance of knowledge and education, values critical thinking and rational inquiry.

Enlightenment

A philosophical movement that emerged in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, characterized by a focus on reason, science, and individualism, and a rejection of traditional authority and dogma.

Reason

The key to understanding the world and solving its problems, emphasized by Enlightenment thinkers. They believed in empirical evidence and scientific inquiry.

Progress

The belief that society could be improved through reason and scientific progress, held by Enlightenment thinkers. They believed humans were capable of creating a better world through their own efforts.

Secularism

The rejection of traditional religious authority and emphasis on reason and science over faith, held by Enlightenment thinkers.

John Locke

An English philosopher who emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms, and argued that government should be based on the consent of the governed.

Voltaire

A French philosopher who championed freedom of speech and religious tolerance, and criticized the abuses of the Catholic Church and the French monarchy.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A Swiss philosopher who emphasized the importance of individual freedom and the social contract between individuals and society.

Immanuel Kant

A German philosopher who emphasized the importance of reason and the scientific method, and argued that morality should be based on rational principles.

Social Contract

The idea that individuals agree to give up some of their natural rights in exchange for protection and security provided by the government.

Natural Rights

The belief that individuals have inherent rights that cannot be taken away by the government. These rights include life, liberty, and property.