Grade 11 Biology: Electron Microscopy, Magnification, Biotechnology & Fermentation

100 vocabulary flashcards summarizing key terms from Grade 11 Biology notes on microscopy, magnification, biotechnology, fermentation, and industrial enzyme use.

Electron microscope

Instrument that employs electrons as the radiation source to attain extremely high magnification and resolution.

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

Electron microscope in which electrons pass through a thin specimen to produce highly detailed internal images.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

Electron microscope that scans a specimen’s surface with electrons to create 3-D external images.

Electron gun

Device within an electron microscope that emits high-velocity electrons toward the specimen.

Condenser electromagnetic lens

First lens system in an electron microscope that concentrates the electron beam onto the specimen.

Objective electromagnetic lens

Lens that produces and initially magnifies the first image of the specimen in an electron microscope.

Projector electromagnetic lens

Lens assembly that further magnifies and projects the image onto a screen or plate in an electron microscope.

Fluorescent screen

Surface inside an electron microscope where the electron image is viewed in black and white.

Vacuum (in electron microscopy)

Air-free environment required so electrons can travel unimpeded between gun, specimen and screen.

Photographic plate

Medium used to permanently record black-and-white images produced by an electron microscope.

Light microscope

Microscope that relies on visible light and glass lenses, typically magnifying up to about 2,000×.

Magnification

Number of times an image is enlarged relative to the actual size of an object.

Resolution

Ability of a microscope to distinguish two points that are close together as separate entities.

Resolving power

Smallest detail a microscope can reveal; increases as resolution improves.

Formula for magnification

Magnification = Observed image size ÷ Actual specimen size.

Biotechnology

Applied biology that uses living systems or organisms to manufacture products or perform industrial tasks.

Traditional biotechnology

Ancient, empirical use of microbes for processes such as bread, cheese, wine and beer making.

Modern biotechnology

Science-based manipulation of organisms, often involving genetic engineering, to create new products.

Gene technology

Suite of techniques for isolating, transferring or modifying genes between organisms.

Genetic engineering

Direct manipulation of an organism’s DNA to introduce desirable traits or produce novel substances.

Transgenic organism

Plant or animal that contains genes transferred from an unrelated species.

Transgenic goat

Genetically modified goat engineered to secrete therapeutic antibodies or clotting factors in its milk.

Transgenic plant

Genetically altered plant capable of producing vaccines or resisting herbicides.

Microorganism

Microscopic living entity such as bacteria, archaea, protists, fungi or viruses.

Prokaryote

Unicellular organism lacking a nucleus; includes bacteria and archaea.

Eukaryote

Organism whose cells possess a true nucleus; includes protists and fungi.

Protist

Mostly single-celled eukaryote commonly found in moist environments.

Fungi

Eukaryotic organisms with filamentous hyphae; yeasts are unicellular members of this kingdom.

Yeast

Single-celled fungus widely used in baking, brewing and biofuel production.

Hyphae

Thread-like fungal filaments forming the mycelium of multicellular fungi.

Archaea

Domain of prokaryotes distinct from bacteria, often inhabiting extreme environments.

Virus

Non-cellular particle capable of reproducing only inside host cells using host genetic machinery.

Fermenter

Large industrial vessel that maintains optimal conditions for microbial growth and product formation.

Batch culture

Fermentation method where medium and microbes are set once and product harvested at the end.

Continuous culture

Fermentation system kept running with fresh nutrient input and continuous product removal.

Fermentation

Microbial conversion of organic substrates to alcohol, acids or gases, with or without oxygen.

Anaerobic respiration

Energy-yielding breakdown of glucose without oxygen, producing ethanol or lactic acid plus CO₂.

Alcoholic fermentation

Anaerobic process converting glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide, typically by yeast.

Biofuel

Fuel derived from biological materials such as ethanol from sugarcane or biodiesel from plant oils.

Gasohol

Motor fuel blend of ethanol and petrol that burns cleaner than pure gasoline.

Ethanol

Alcohol produced by yeast fermentation, used as a solvent, beverage component and renewable fuel.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Common yeast species employed in bread, beer and wine production.

Amylase

Enzyme that hydrolyzes starch into sugars during bread making and seed germination.

Gluten

Elastic wheat protein that traps CO₂ bubbles, allowing bread dough to rise.

Rennet

Mixture of enzymes added to coagulate milk proteins during cheese production.

Curds

Solid coagulated casein lumps formed in cheese making after rennet addition.

Whey

Liquid remaining after curds are separated during cheese production.

Malted barley

Germinated then dried barley grains rich in active enzymes for beer brewing.

Wort

Sugary liquid extracted from malted grains, fermented by yeast to produce beer.

Hops

Plant cones added to boiling wort to impart bitterness and aroma to beer.

Enzyme

Protein catalyst that speeds biological reactions without being consumed.

Biological catalyst

General term for enzymes that lower activation energy in metabolic pathways.

Protease

Enzyme that breaks peptide bonds, digesting proteins into smaller peptides or amino acids.

Lipase

Enzyme that hydrolyzes fats into glycerol and fatty acids.

Pectinase

Enzyme that degrades pectin to aid juice extraction and clarification in fruit processing.

Biological washing powder

Laundry detergent containing enzymes like proteases and lipases to remove organic stains at low temperatures.

Industrial enzyme application

Use of isolated microbial enzymes to replace high-energy chemical processes in manufacturing.

Steam sterilization (in fermenters)

High-pressure hot steam treatment used to eliminate contaminants before fermentation begins.

Water jacket

Cooling system around a fermenter that circulates cold water to dissipate fermentation heat.

Stirring paddles

Mechanical agitators inside fermenters that mix culture, ensuring uniform temperature and nutrient distribution.

pH probes

Sensors that continuously monitor acidity/alkalinity within a fermenter for automatic adjustment.

Starter culture

Prepared population of microorganisms added to initiate fermentation of a food or beverage.

Lactobacillus bulgaricus

Bacterium used with S. thermophilus in yoghurt production to ferment lactose to lactic acid.

Streptococcus thermophilus

Thermophilic bacterium that, alongside L. bulgaricus, acidifies milk in yoghurt making.

Pasteurization (milk)

Heat treatment (~90 °C) that kills harmful microbes before yoghurt or cheese production.

Homogenization (milk)

Mechanical process that breaks fat globules into tiny droplets, preventing cream separation.

Louis Pasteur

French biologist who described fermentation as “life without air” and pioneered germ theory.

"Life without air"

Pasteur’s phrase describing anaerobic fermentation carried out by microorganisms.

Carbon dioxide (in fermentation)

Gas by-product that causes bread to rise and creates bubbles in beer and wine.

Distillation (ethanol)

Heating fermented mixture to separate and concentrate ethanol for fuel or beverages.

Optimum temperature (fermenters)

Controlled heat level that maximizes microbial metabolic activity and product yield.

Sugarcane (biofuel raw source)

Crop whose sucrose is fermented by yeast to generate ethanol fuel.

Rapeseed oil (biofuel)

Plant oil that can be processed into biodiesel as a renewable energy source.

Sunflower oil (biofuel)

Vegetable oil feedstock used to produce biodiesel for engines.

Barley enzymes

Hydrolytic proteins activated during malting that convert grain starches to fermentable sugars.

Maltose

Disaccharide sugar produced from starch breakdown, fermented by yeast in brewing.

Glucose

Monosaccharide that serves as primary substrate for yeast during alcoholic fermentation.

Cellulose

Structural plant polysaccharide sometimes released during juice extraction.

Starch

Storage polysaccharide hydrolyzed by amylase during bread and beer production.

Pectin

Gel-forming polysaccharide between plant cell walls broken down by pectinases.

Polysaccharide

Large carbohydrate molecule composed of many sugar units; includes starch and cellulose.

Clotting factor (from transgenic goats)

Blood-coagulating protein expressed in goat milk for medical use.

Antibiotic penicillin

Bacteria-killing drug mass-produced via modern biotechnology using fungi.

Enzyme trypsin

Protease employed pharmaceutically to treat inflammation and dissolve blood clots.

Fermentation heat control

Removal of excess thermal energy to prevent culture damage during large-scale fermentation.

Air inlet (fermenter)

Filtered opening supplying oxygen for aerobic fermentation processes.

Harvesting outlet

Valve through which the finished fermentation product is removed.

Microbial culture medium

Nutrient solution formulated to support growth of industrial microorganisms.

Stainless steel fermenter

Corrosion-resistant vessel material able to withstand acidic metabolic waste.

Corrosion resistance

Ability of fermenter alloys to endure acidic by-products without degrading.

Food technology (application)

Use of microbes and enzymes in producing edible goods like yoghurt and bread.

Brewing industry

Sector that ferments grains and yeast to produce beer and other alcoholic beverages.

Textile industry (enzyme use)

Field that exploits enzymes to soften fabrics, remove starches and improve finishing.

Pharmaceutical industry enzyme

Medical sector application where microbial enzymes aid drug synthesis and treatment.

Fuel pollution reduction

Environmental benefit of burning ethanol or gasohol which emits fewer harmful pollutants.

Image magnification limit (light microscope)

Upper enlargement boundary of about 2,000× for optical microscopes.

Image magnification limit (electron microscope)

Capability to enlarge images up to roughly 500,000×.

Preparation complexity (electron microscope)

Time-consuming, elaborate specimen processing including dehydration and vacuum mounting.

Living specimen (light microscope)

Optical microscopes can examine cells that are alive and hydrated.

Dehydrated specimen (electron microscope)

Condition required for electron microscopy because water would vaporize in a vacuum.