Princeton - Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior

physiological psychology

the study of behavior as influenced by biology, drawing in techniques and research methods from biology and medicine

traits

distinctive characteristics or behavior patters determined by genetics

evolutionary perspective

how principles of evolution apply to psychology (like survival of the fittest and natural selection)

environmentality

the degree to which a trait’s expression is caused by the environment in which an organism lives

down syndrome

when there are 3 copies of the 21st chromosome, causing intellectual disability

Huntington’s chorea

fatal genetic disorder that results in muscle impairment; usually after 40

Central nervous system (CNS)

brain + spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

all other nerves in the body

neurons

nerve cells that form a network extending to the spinal cord and brain, transmitting information throughout the body.

sensory/afferent neurons

sending information to the brain

motor/efferent neurons

sneding information out from the brain

interneurons

a neuron which transmits impulses between other neurons, especially as part of a reflex arc

somatic nervious system

responsible for voluntary movement of large skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

nonskeletal/smooth muscles like heart and digestive tract; can be divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

sympathetic nervous system

burn energy

parasympathetic nervous system

conserving energy

soma

nucleated cell body

dendrites

receive input from other neurons through receptors

axon

tubelike structure that responds to input from dendrites and soma

myelin sheath

fatty coating as insulation to pseed up transmission

nodes of Ranvier

small gaps in axon between Myelin sheath that help seed up transmission

terminal buttons

knobs on the branched end of the axon

synapse

gap between terminal buttons and other neurons

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers released from a terminal button across the synapse, binding with other receptors

glial cells

non-neuronal cells that provide physical and cheical support to neurons

resting membrane potential

-70 millivolts; interior of cell is negatively charged with respect to exterior of cell

action potential/nerve impulse

disturbance in membrane potential

excitatory neurotransmitters

excite the cell or cause the neuron to fire

inhibitory neurotransmitters

stop cell firing

enzymes

brake neurotransmitter after it is released and conducted impulse

reuptake

process that absorbes neurotransmitter back into the cell after firing

acetylcholine - key neurotransmitter

affects memory function and muscle contraction (heart)

serotonin - key neurotransmitter

arousal, sleep, pain sensitivity, and mood and hunger regulation

dopamine - key neurotransmitter

movement, attention and reward; may play role in Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia

gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) - key neurotransmitter

inhibitory neurotransmitter (decrease likelihood of firing)

glutamate - key neurotransmitter

excitatory neurotransmitter; couterpart to GABA

norepinephrine

affects levels of alertness; lack → depression

endorphins

natural painkillers

substance P

pain, mood, vasodilation (blood vessels widen), learning

horomones

affect cell groth and proliferation

pituitary gland

mater gland located under hypothalamus that releases hormones that control hormonal release

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

stimulates adrenal glands → fight or flight reactions

epinephrine/norepinephrine

adrenaline/noradrenaline secreted by adrenal glands

leptin

horomone regulating hunger and energy

ghrelin

tells brain it is hungry

oxytocin

sexual arousal, romantic attachment, and parental bonding

dependence

when someone continues using a drug despite overarching negative consequences to avoid unpleasant feelings when not taking it; basically addiction

tolerance

increasingly larger doese are needed for the same effect to occur

withdrawal

weaning off a drug one has become dependent upon

hindbrain

the oldest part of the brain to develop that is composed of the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular activating system (RAS), and pons

cerebellum

controls muscle tone and balance, coordination, and procedural learning

brain stem

includes Medulla oblongata; controls involuntary actions

reticular activating system (PAS) and the brain’s reward system

controls arousal, voluntary and eye movement

pons

passing neural information from one brain region to another

forebrain

contains limbic system and cerebral cortex

limbic system

composed of thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus

thalamus

receives and directs sensory information from visual and auditory systems

hippocampus

processes and integrates memories

anterograde amnesia

prevents formation of new memories b/c damage to hippocampus

amygdala

implicates anger, frustration and fear

hypothalamus

controls temeperature and water balance; hunger and ex drives; activation of sympathetic nervous and endocrine system

can be divided into lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus

lateral hypothalamus

like on switch for eating; lesion would cause obesity

ventromedial hypothalamus

off switch for eating

cerebral cortex

outer layer of brain involved in higher cognitive functions; divided into frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes

sensory cortex

receives sensory input

motor cortex

sends out motor information

left + right cerebral hemispheres

langage processing + visual/spatial information processing

corpus callosum

a band of connective nerve fibers joining hemispheres

expressive aphasia

loss of the ability to speak

Broca’s area

area of brain linked to speech

receptive aphasia

inability to comprehend speech

Wernicke’s area

area responsible for understanding speech

split-brain patients

people who had their corpora callosa severed to control seizures; unable to contralateral process

contralateral processing

ability of non-split brains to use both hemispheres and integrate information between them

frontal lobe

responsible for working memory, paying attention, solving problems, forming judgements, etc.

parietal lobe

handles somatosensory information like termature, pressure, texture and pain

temporal lobe

auditory input; processes speech and music

occipital lobe

visual input

optic chiasm

transmits visual information in occipital lobe

association areas

associate information in the sensory and motor cortices

apraxia

inability to organize movement due to damage in association areas

agnosia

difficulty processing sensory input due to damaged association areas

alexia

inability to read due to damaged association areas in the brain.

agraphia

inability to write due to damaged association areas

neuroplasticity

reorganization of brain by forming/severing neural connections throughout life; allows brain to compensate for injury/disease

EEG (electroencephalogram)

measures subtle changes in brain electrical activity through electrodes on the head and brainwaves; especially useful in sleep studies

CAT scans (computerized axial tomography scans)

generate cross-sectional images of brain using X-ray pictures

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

uses extremely powerful electromagnets and radio waves to get 3D structural info from brain; don’t observe over time but use “snapshots”

Functional MRI (fMRI)

can see brain as it works by rapid sequencing of MRI images

PET scans (positron emission tomography)

use diffusion of radioactive glucose to see brain working

state of consciousness

allows evaluation of environment while being aware of this process

alertness and arousal

involve the ability to remain attentive to surroundings; controlled within branstem by RAS (reticular activating system)

altered state of consciousness

not being alert for a variety of reasons (head injuries, toxins, sleep, etc.)

stream of consciousness

coined by William James; refers to continuous flow of thoughts

mental raelity

referred to by Robert Sternberg when consciousness helps adapt to the world

controlled processing

very where of what we are doing

automatic processing

perform tasks mechanically (brushing teeth)

circadian rhythm

day-to-night pattern that physiological markers like body temperature follows

pineal gland

a small endocrine gland in the brain that produces melatonin, influenced by light-sensitive photoreceptors in the retina

beta wave

when awake