research methods, non-experimental techniuqes

Content analysis

A research method used to systematically analyse qualitative data (e.g interviews) by coding into categories

Example: counting how often words related to aggression appear in TV programmes

Coding

The process of categorising qualitative data into meaningful units for analysis

Example: assigning “positive” or “negative” labels to comments in a diary or study

Case study

An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event, often using multiple method

Observational research

A method where behaviour is watched and recorded systematically

Naturalistic observation

Observing behaviour in its normal environment without interference

Controlled observation

Observing behaviour in a structured or artificial setting

Example: observing participants in a lab experiment on memory recall

Participant observation

Researcher becomes part of the group being studied

Example: joining a classroom to observer teaching styles

Non-participant observation

Researcher observes without joining in

Example: watching from behind a one-way mirror

Covert observation

Participants are unaware they are being observed

Example: secretly observing customer behaviour in a shop

Overt observation

Participants know they are being observed

Example: telling students they are being observed during a lesson

Time sampling

Recording behaviour at fixed time intervals

Example: noting what a child is doing every 30 seconds in a playground

Event sampling

Recording every time a specific behaviour occurs

Validity (observations)

The extent to which observations measure what they claim to measure

Example: observing aggression in playground fights rather than in video games

Reliability (observations)

Consistency of observational data across time or observers

Example: two observers recording the same behaviours independently agreeing

Self-report techniques

Methods where participants provide information about themselves (e.g questionnaires, interviews)

Questionnaire

A set of written questions designed to collect data

Interview

A face-to-face or virtual conversation to collect data

Structured interview

Interview with fixed, pre-set questions

Unstructured interview

Interview with open-ended flexible questions

Validity (self-reports)

Accuracy of self-report data in reflecting true experience

Example: a stress questionnaire that genuinely measured stress rather than mood

Reliability (self-reports)

Consistency of self-report data across time or items

Example: a personality test giving similar results when repeated

Peer review

The process where other experts evaluate research before publication

Publication bias

The tendency for journals to publish positive or novel findings over null results

Scientific credibility

The trustworthiness of research ensured through peer review and replication

Internal validity

Whether a study measures what it intends to within its design

Example: a memory test actually measuring memory rather than reading ability

External validity

The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the study

Example: applying lab findings on obedience to real-world settings

Ecological validity

How well findings apply to real-life settings

Example: observing behaviour in a shopping centre rather than a lab

Temporal validity

Whether findings remain true over time

Test-retest reliability

Consistency of results when the same test is repeated

Inter-observer reliability

Agreement between different observers recording the same behaviour

Internal reliability

Consistency within a test itself (e.g. items measuring the same construct)

Open questions

Participate answers freely in their own words without being restricted

Closed questions

Participant choose from fixed options, such as yes/no, restricts how participants can respond so produces quantitative data

Likert scale

Rating scale where people show how strongly they agree or disagree with a statement

Face validity

How much a test or measure appears to assess what it claims to measure, just by looking at it

Ecological validity

How well a study’s findings apply to real-life settings and everyday behaviour

Temporal validity

How well a study’s findings stay true over tike and remain relevant in different historical periods

Construct validity

How well a test or measure actually assesses the psychological concept in claims to measure

Concurrent validity

How well a new test matches the results of an established, valid test that measures the same thing

Criterion validity

How well a test predicts an outcome by comparing its results with a relevant external measure

Primary data

Data collected first-hand by the researcher for their own study

Secondary data

Data collected by someone else and used by the researcher

Meta-analysis

A study that combines and analyses results from many existing studies