A level AQA Psychology Paper 2

Human Nervous System Branches

Central Nervous System

-Brain: consciousness, hemispheres

-Spinal Cord: passes messages from the brain, reflex actions, connects to PNS

Peripheral Nervous System

Transmits Messages via neurons

-Autonomic: breathing heart rate stress

-Somatic: muscle and sensory neurons

Endocrine System

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Examples

-Thyroid, Thyroxine, heart rate

-Pituitary gland, regulates other glands

-adrenal, adrenaline, arousal

Adrenaline Steps

-Hypothalamus in brain activates pituitary gland

-ANS Sympathetic state

-Adrenaline Released for fight or flight

Immediate and Automatic

-Once threat has passed, parasympathetic nervous system returns body to original state

Structure of a neuron

cell body

dendrites

axon (myelin sheath nodes of ranvier)

synapse

Neuron Types

Electrical Tranmission

Action Potential, sum of the excitory and inhibitory hormones

Synapse

Localisation vs holistic theory

before Broca and Wernicke, scientists supported the holistic theory of the brain that all parts were involved in the processing of though and action. however, later scientists argued that different parts of the brain perform different tasks and are involved with different parts of the body. if the brain area is damaged, the associated function will also become affected

Hemispheres of the brain

Right side is more Creative (deals with art, music, holistic thought, and intuition). Left side is more Analytical (deals with logic, language, science, and math).

Brain Localisation

Brain Part Functions

Motor- movement

Visual- sight

Somatosensory- sensory

Auditory- analysis of sound based info

Broca's- Speech production

Wernicke's- language understanding

Localisation of brain function Evaluation

+EVIDENCE FROM NEUROSURGERY

>OCD area of brain can be treated, showing specific area

+BRAIN SCAN EVIDENCE

>activity during tasks

COUNTER

>rats having cortexes severed could still do maze (holistic)

-LANGUAGE QUESTIONED

>not just broca and wernicke, fmri showed greater spread

Left and Right Hemispheres

Together, the two hemispheres control much of your behaviour. The left is relatively more specialized for speech and language; the right, for appreciation of 3D space and spatial relationships. Right hem controls RVF and vice versa

Split brain research - Sperry

Sperry studied individuals who had undergone a commissurotomy (corpus callosum cut to separate the two hemispheres)

Images in both visual fields

When image shown to RVF (LH) they could descibe it but not on the opposite side, as the RH could not relay to language centres in the LH

They could however select the object from sight

LVF (RH) had emotional response to pinups but couldnt describe

Supports Lateralisation

Lateralisation Evaluation

+RESEARCH SUPPORT

>PET scans in tasks

-ONE BRAIN

>No dominant side for personality

Split Brain evaluation

+RESEARCH SUPPORT

> Split B Better performance in some tasks shows lateralisation

-GENERALISATION ISSUES

>causal relationships hard to establish

>epilepsy caused not split brain

plasticicty

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Maguire et.al London Taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampus, longer done more grey matter

Draganski et al medical students brains changed after exams

Plasticity Evaluation

-NEGATIVE PLASTICITY

>drugs lead to poor function, dementia

>phantom limb syndrome

+AGE

> could be a life long ability

>40 hrs training 40-60yo golfer fmri increased activity

Functional Recovery

Axonal Sprouting- new nerve endings

Denervation Supersensitivity- axons doing a similar job are aroused

Recruitment of homologous areas- opposite side does more

Functional Recovery Evaluation

+RW APPLICATION

>our understanding aids our ability to help

>constraint induced movement therapy

-COGNITIVE RESERVE

>level of education may influence recovery rate

>implications on less educated

Ways of studying the brain

- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

- Electroencephalogram (EEG)

- Event Related Potential (ERP) FILTERS OUT EEG unuseful stuff

- Post Mortem

fMRI evaluation

+no radiation

+spatial resolution

+straightforward

-expensive

-poor temporal resolution

EEG evaluation

+stages of sleep

+temp res

+cheap (ish)

-general info, hard to pinpoint

-different but adjacent locations

ERP Evaluation

+more specific than EEGs

+temporal resolution

-lack of standardisation of methodology

-hard to remove noise

Post Mortem Evaluation

+foundation for early understanding

+establish links

-causation

-ethical issues consent

Circadian Rhythms

The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species.

Biological Rhythms

periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning

Sleep-Wake Cycle

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus endogenous pacemaker

Reset by exogenous zeitgeber daylight

Siffre Cave Study

- Caver spent long periods in dark caves to examine the effects of free-running biological rhythm

o Two months in cave

o Six months in cave

- In both studies, his free running circadian rhythm settled down to about 25 hours

- He did have a regular sleep/wake cycle

Other Circadian Rhythm Research

1)Wever et al

WW2 bunker 4 weeks

no natural light

24 to 25 hr cycle bar one (29)

naturally be a bit longer but trained by ex zeit

2) Folkard et al

12 ppl in cave

sped up clock

only 1 could adjust

Circadian Rhythm Evaluation

+SHIFT WORK

>understanding of consequences

>poor health and shift economic impact

COUNTER

>correlationary, other factors eg loneliness

+MEDICAL TREATMENT

>aspirin better taken at night as heart attack likely in morning

-INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

>small samples

>only make averages not generalisations

Infradian Rhythms

Less than one cycle in 24 hours

Menstrual Cycle 28 days

Synchronisation study showed 68% of women pheromones synced closer

Seasonal Affective Disorder

melatonin production has a knock on effect to seretonin

Infradian Rhythms Evaluation

+EVOLUTIONARY BASIS

>natural selection sync babies to look after them

-METHODOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS

>many other factors acting as confounding variables

Ultradian Rhythms

More than 1 cycle in 24 hours

SLEEP STAGES:

S1&2) high frequency, short amplitude easily woken, 2: alpha still but occasional changes in pattern

S3&4) Deep slow wave sleep, lower frequ high amp

S5) REM paralysed but brain activity resembles active brain, theta waves, eye movement

Ultradian Rhythms Evaluation

+IMPROVED UNDERSTANDING

>age related changes, growth hormone and sleep

-INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

> biological, hard to define normal

Endogenous pacemakers and the sleep/wake cycle

EPs are the internal body clocks that are thought to regulate circadian rhythms.

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is thought to be the primary pacemaker

SCN - a bundle of nerves located in the hypothalamus. primary EP. it is located just above the optic chiasm, which receives info from eyes about light (happens even when eyes are closed)

Animal Study- 30 chipmunks with destroyed SCN, no cycle, most killed by predators

-Bred hamsters with 20hr scn cycle, implanted tissue into normal ones, defaulted to 20 hrs

Pineal Gland and melatonin- SCN psses info to pin g released melatonin induces sleep

Endogenous pacemakers and the sleep/wake cycle Evaluation

-BEYOND THE MASTER CLOCK

>research on scn obscures other body clocks eg peripheral oscillators in organs

-INTERACTIONIST SYSTEM

>cant be studied alone

>pacemakers and zeitgebers interact hard to separate,

Exogenous Zeitgebers and the sleep/wake cycle

External factors in environment that reset biological clocks through entrainment

Light - plays a role in maintenance of sleep/wake cycle, indirect influence on key processes which control functions like hormones secretion and blood circulation

Social Cues - infants sleep/wake cycle pretty random, 6 weeks the circadian rhythm begins and at 16 weeks most babies are entrained, adult determined mealtimes and bed times, adapting to local eat and sleep times is effective at entraining CR and beating jet lag

Exogenous Zeitgebers and the sleep/wake cycle Evaluation

-ENVIRONMENTAL OBSERVATIONS

>dont have the same effect in all environments

>arctic circle, barely any daylight, similar patterns

-CASE STUDY EVIDENCE

>blind man, abnormal cycle, social cues alome not enough

Origins of Psychology

Wundt founded first ever psychological lab in Germany in 1879.

Aimed to document and describe the nature of human consciousness.

Developed introspection

Wundt and Introspection

- Fist ever lab in 1879 in Leipzig, aimed to analyse the nature of human behaviour using introspection

-Thoughts images sensations, standardised

-Structuralism

Wundt and Introspection Evaluation

+SCIENTIFIC

>some methods were scientific and well-controlled

>frontrunner to later approaches

-SUBJECTIVE DATA

>self reporting mental processes

>doesnt meet scientific criteria

The emergence of psychology as a science

1900s - behaviourists

1950s - cognitive

1980s - biological

The emergence of psychology as a science EvaluatioN

+MODERN PSYCHOLOGY

>same aims, understanding, scientific methodology, unbiased and controlled

-SUBJECTIVE DATA

>not all approaches use scientific methods, humanistic, psychodynamic

>humans mean demand characteristic

The Behaviourist Approach

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning. We are a blank slate at birth.

Classical Conditioning- Pavlov's dog, NS US CR CS

Operant Conditioning- Skinner Box PR NR PUN

The Behaviourist Approach Evaluation

+WELL-CONTROLLED RESEARCH

>controlled lab setting, other variables removed so cause-effect more likely

COUNTER

>may as a result have oversimplified learning processes, human thought involved

+RW APPLICATION

>token systems, phobia treatment

-ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM

>ignores any possibility of free will

Social Learning Theory

we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. Vicarious reinforcement- seen to be rewarded

Mediational Processes:

Attention Retention Motor Reproduction Motivation

More likely to occur if there is identification

Banduras doll

Social Learning Theory Evaluation

+COGNITIVE FACTORS

>recognises cognitive factors, neglected by other learning approaches

COUNTER

>biological factors ignored, mirror neurons bandura

-CONTRIVED LAB STUDIES

>many studies it is based on suffer demand characteristics due to contrived nature, bandura kids thought the expectation was to strike it

+RW APPLICATION

>shows how cultural norms are transmitted through societies through the media

The Cognitive Approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.

-Role of Schema

-Theoretical and computer models, msm, wmm, artificial intelligence

Cognitive Neuroscience:

influence of the brain structures on mental processes

uses fmri pet etc to map diefferent sections to functions

The Cognitive Approach Evaluation

+SCIENTIFIC METHODS

>lab studies

>cognitive neuroscience uses biological methods

COUNTER

>reliant on inference, can be too abstrct/theoretical

>artificial stimuli

+RW APPLICATION

>important contribution to ai

-MACHINE REDUCTIONISM

>similarities but ignores emotion and motivation, anxiety on ewt

The Biological Approach

Neurochemical Basis- neurotransmitters, dopamine on schizo, seretonin in ocd

Genetic Basis- twin studies, concordance rates

Genotype and Phenotype

Evolution and Behaviour- natural selection

The Biological Approach Evaluation

+RW APPLICATION

>antidepressant drugs via knowledge of neurotransmitters etc

COUNTER

>drugs dont work for all, modest effect, therefore chemistry cant fully account for this

+SCIENTIFIC METHODS

>fmri, eeg

-BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM

>ignores environmental effects + free will

The Psychodynamic Approach

Role of Unconscious

Defence Mechanisms (repression denial displacement)

Id (bad) Ego (mediator) Superego (morality)

Psychosexual Stages:

Oral 0-1

Anal 1-3

Phallic 3-6

Latency

Genital

The Psychodynamic Approach Evaluation

+RW APPLICATION

>psychoanalysis and psychotherapy, counselling

COUNTER

>not successful for serious disorders eg schizo

+EXPLANATORY POWER

>controversial and bizarre, however, influential in drawing attention to unconscious and chilhood experience

-UNTESTABLE CONCEPTS

>doesnt meet the criterion of falsification, occurrance at an unconscious level

Humanistic Psychology

-Free Will

-Self Actualisation

The self, congruence and worth: concept of self must be somewhat aligned with ideal self, if gap exists, self actualisation isnt possible

counselling reduces gap

issues rooted in unconditional positive regard in childhood

-Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

Maslow's Hierarchy

physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization

Humanistic Psychology Evaluation

+NOT REDUCTIONIST

>holistic approach, considers meaning in a real world environment

COUNTER

>less scientific as a result

+POSITIVE APPROACH

>optimism, freud says prisoners of past, humanistic are free to work towards their ideal self

-CULTURAL BIAS

>collectivist cultures emphasise needs of the group

Experimental Method

Aim

Hypotheses

Method

Type of Hypothesis

IV DV CV

Levels of IV- INDEPENDENT OR REPEATED

Operationalised variables

Research Issues

- Extraneous variables - Confounding variables - Demand characteristics - Investigator effects - Randomisation - Standardisation

Independent Groups Evaluation

- participant variables not controlled (use random allocation)

- less economical (more ppts needed), no order effects (guessing aims)

Repeated Measures Evaluation

- Order effects

- Demand characteristics

- No participant variable problems

- More economical

Matched Pairs Evaluation

+ pps only take part in a single condition so order effects and demand characteristics less of a problem

- although participant variables reduced, pps can never be matched exactly. even when identical twins are used as matched pairs, there will still be important differences that may effect DV.

- matching may be time-consuming and expensive especially if a pre-test is required, less economical than other designs

Lab Experiments Evaluation

High internal validity (control)

Low external validity (low realism)

Cause and effect

Replication

Demand characteristics

Field Experiments AO1 AND 3

IV manipulated in a real world setting

+authentic behaviour, covert possibility

-ethical issues, replication is hard, cause-effect

Natural Experiments AO1 AND 3

No control over IV eg natural disaster, childs age

+opportunity for research which may usually be avoided due to practicality and ethics, high ext validity as it is real world as it happens

-no random allocation

Quasi-Experiments

IV is based on an existing difference (ie age), the DV is measured by the researcher, can be in lab or natural settings

+often in lab conditions so variables controlled

-confounding variables, cause effect as IV is not manipulated by researcher

Sample Types PSYCHOLOGY

Random

Systematic

Stratified

Opportunity

Volunteer

Ethical Issues

informed consent

deception

harm

confidentiality

Dealing With Ethical Issues

BPS Code of Conduct

Consent letter

Debrief

Right to withhold

Anonymity

Aims of Pilot Studies

-Remove Ambiguous Questions

-Identify issues

Pilot Studies Other Stuff

Single Blind: ppts not made aware

Double Blind: researcher and ppts not aware

Control Groups: used for comparison

Types of Observation

-naturalistic (take place where behaviour would usually occur)

-controlled

-covert

-overt

-participant

-non-participant

Types of Observation Evaluation

-Causal relationships

-Observer Bias

rest are fairly self explanatory in an exam eg demand characteristics

Ways of recording data

Unstructured (write all)

Structured (target criteria)

Behavioural Categories

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable

Event and Time Sampling

Counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs (event) or recording behaviour within a pre-established time-frame (time).

Questionnaires

self-administered, written sets of questions

Open and Closed

Questionnaires Evaluation

+more responses

+easy to analyse closed

+easy to replicate

-social desirability bias

-can misinterpret qs

-restricted to qs closed

-tendency to just put yes

Interviews Evaluation

Structured:

+replicate

+differences in interviewers

-richness of data

Unstructured:

+flexibility and insight

-interviewer bias

Self Report Design Q

Likert (agreement)

Rating (eg 1-5)

Fixed Choice

Correlations Evaluation

+ easily displayed in graphs

+ allows to see relationships between 2 co-variables

+ easy and quick to carry out

+ quantative data - easy to analyse

- correlation is NOT causation

- extraneous variables can have an impact

REMINDER TO WATCH HOW TO DO THE SIGN TEST

DO IT

Aims of Peer Review

1) To allocate funding properly and appropriately. It stops researchers spending lots of money on investigations which may encounter problems. Also it helps to develop the areas of psychology that need to be developed,

2) To validate the quality of research. It establishes more accurate to inter-observer reliability. Additionally it makes sure that you are measuring what you set out to measure.

3) To suggest amendments and improvements. It allows researchers to get more accurate results as it eliminates potential problems.

Evaluation of Peer Review

- Anonymity > revenge > some journals favour open reviewing

- Publication bias > only interesting/successful research published > file drawer problem

- Burying ground breaking research > research which challenges established order isn't passed

Case Studies

a research method that involves the intensive examination of unusual people or organizations

+rich insights on atypical behaviour

+generate hypotheses for future studies

-generalisation of findings

-prone to inaccuracy

Coding and Quantitative Data

- initial stage of content analysis

- some data sets to be analysed may be extremely large and so there is a need to categorise this information into meaningful units

- may involve counting up the number of times a particular word or phrase is said to form quantitative in an interview

Thematic analysis and qualitative data

Recurrent ideas that keep 'cropping up' in the communication are described.

Content Analysis Evaluation

+get around ethical issues as info may be in the public domain

+external validity

-indirect study so communications are analysed outside the content they occurred

-subjective assumptions made

Types of Validity

Does it produce a genuine result?

Internal Validity- whether effects are due to IV

External Validity- generalisation to other settings

Ecological Validity- application to real life

Temporal Validity- hold true over time

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Ways of Assessing Reliability

Test-retest: same test given to same person on different occasions, 2 sets of scores are correlated if correlation is significant the reliability of the measuring tool is good

Inter-observer: for observations, inter-rater for content analysis, inter-interviewer for interviews, correlation of +0.8

Improving Reliability

questionnaires: test retest, rewrite if bad

interviews: use same interviewer each time, less leading questions, ambiguous questions, maybe even closed

experiments and observations: ensure proper operationalisation, no overlap, training in observation, standardised procedures for experiments

Choosing A Statistical Test

Features of science

Paradigms & paradigm shifts (assumptions and agreements)

Theory construction

Falsifiability (ability to be proved untrue)

Replicability

Objectivity

Empirical method (based on evidence through direct observation and experience)

Sections of a scientific report

Abstract (short summary)

Introduction (detail relevant theories and studies, start broad narrow down to aim and hypothesis)

Method (design, sample, apparatus, procedure, ethics)

Results

Discussion

Referencing