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Geomorphology
Study of the origin, characteristics and development of landforms
Minerals
A particular chemical combination that has a hardness, density, and definite crystal structure of its own
Intrusive igneous rock
formed below ground level by the solidification of magma
Extrusive igneous rock
created above ground level by the solidification of lava
Sedimentary rock
composed of particles of gravel, sand, silt, and clay that were eroded from existing rocks
Strata
horizontal beds under water
Metamorphic rock
formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks by Earth’s forces that generate heat, pressure, or chemical reaction
Rock cycle
Continental drift theory
• Based on early 20th-century work of Alfred Wegener.
• All land masses were once united in a supercontinent
called Pangaea; continents drifted apart over many
millions of years.
• Forerunner of today’s plate tectonics theory.
Pangaea
Theory of plate tectonics
Asthenosphere
Partially molten layer above the earth’s interior
Lithosphere
Outermost layer of the earth (the crust and upper mantle)
Divergent plate boundaries
Convergent plate boundaries
Transform boundaries
Faults
fractures in rock along which there has been movement
Zone of Subduction
Epicenters
Hot spots
breaks in earth’s crust where a rising plume of molten material reaches the surface
Diastrophism
the great pressure acting on the plates that deforms them by folding, twisting, warping, breaking, or compressing rock
Volcanism
the force that transports heated material to or toward the surface of Earth
Folding
Layers of rock are forced to buckle from compression caused by plate movements
The Richter Scale
Tsunami
caused by a volcanic eruption or underwater landslide below the ocean
Seismographs
instruments that record seismic waves
Gradational processes
reduction of land’s surface through weathering, mass movement, and erosion
The breakdown and decomposition of rocks and
minerals at or near the earth’s surface in response
to atmospheric factors (water, air and temperature)
Chemical weathering
Decomposition of rock as a result of chemical
reaction
Mechanical weathering
the physical disintegration of earth materials at or near the surface; that is, larger rocks are broken into smaller pieces
Soil
created by weathering processes
Mass wasting (mass movement)
the downslope movement of material due to gravity
Talus
dramatic, cone-like landform created by the accumulation of rock particles at the base of hills and mountains, especially in dry areas
Load of a stream
small particles, such as clay or silt, are suspended in water and constitute together with the material dissolved in the water or dragged along the bottom
Falls
a stream that flowed over precipices
Floodplains
Delta
silt and sand accumulation and intersections
Natural Levees
formed by deposition of silt at river edges during floods
Alluvium and alluvial fans
alluvium (sand and mud) builds up in the lakes and at lower elevations, and alluvial fans are formed along hillsides
Water table
the top zone of groundwater saturation
Aquifers
porous underground structure bearing water
Karst topography
a large limestone region marked by sinkholes, caverns, and underground streams
Stalactites
Stalagmites
Sinkholes
Glaciers and Ice Sheets
Tills
Glaciers, troughs, and fjords
Outwash plain
Permafrost
Coral reefs
Composed of coral organisms growing in shallow tropical water
Atolls
Reefs formed in shallow water around a volcano that has since been covered or nearly covered by water
Loess
deposit of windblown silt