Education ploicy and inequality

When was complusory schooling introduced and why

In 1880, compulsory schooling was introduced for children aged 5-13, due to industrialisation increasing the need for an educated workforce. Working class children were goven schooling to equip them with basic numeracy and literature skills needed for routine factory work, and middle class children to prepare them for careers in professional work

Describe the tripartite system

The education act 1944 brought in a tripartite system, so called as children were to be selected and allocated to one of 3 types of secondary school, identified by teh 11+ exam.

Grammar schools were for those who passed the 11+, and offered access to higher education. Secondary modern schools offered non academic, ‘practical’ curriculums and access to manual work for those who failed the 11+, mainly working class

(the third type only existed in a few areas, so it was more of a bipartite system)

WHat was the impact of teh tripartite system

Rather than promoting meritocracy, this system reproduced class inequality by chenneling teh 2 differet social classes into 2 different types of school that offered unequal opportuities. It also legitimised inequality through teh ideology that ability is born, and that it could be measured early in life through teh 11+ exams.

Describe the comprehensive school system

This system aimed to overcome the inequalities of the tripartite system from 1965 onwards. The 11+ was abolished, along with grammars and secondary moderns, to be replaced with comprehensive schools, that all pupils in the area would attend. However, not all councils decided to ‘go comprehensive’, and as a result many grammar schools still exist

What are the 2 theories of the role of comprehensive schools (functionalism and marxism)

Functionalists argue that comprehensive promotes social integration by bringing children of different social classes together. However, a study by Ford found little mixing between pupils of different social class, largely due to streaming. fucntionalists also see comprehensive schooling as more meritocratic as it gives pupil a longer period to show their skills

Marxists argue comprehensives arent meritocratic, but rather produce class inequality between generations through streaming and labelling.

What is marketisation

Refers to the process of introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition between suppliers into areas run by the state such as education, by reducing state control over education and increasing competition between schools, creating an education market

Describe evidence of marketisation creating a parentocracy

Publication of leaue tables and Ofsted inspection reports gove parents the right information they need to choose schools

Specialist schools widen parenting choice

Introduction of tuition fees for higher education

How does marketisation lead to the reproduction of inequality accoridng to Ball and Whittey

Ball and Whittey note how marketisation policies such as exam league tables and teh funding formula reproduce class inequalities by creating inequalities between schools

According to Barlett, what do league tables allow for

Cream skimming - ‘Good’ schools can be more selective and recruit high achieving, mainly middle class pupils

Silt-shifting - ‘Good’ schools can avoid taking less able pupils who are liekly to get poor results and damage teh schools league table reputation

describe teh funding formula

The funding formula allocates government money to schools based on factors like student numbers, socio-economic background, additional needs, and special educational requirements. However, schools with fewer applications, often due to being lower in league tables, may receive less funding. This often affects working-class schools, as they tend to have fewer students and lower league table rankings, which can result in reduced resources. While the formula aims for fairness, it can exacerbate inequalities, as these schools may struggle with fewer resources compared to wealthier, higher-performing schools.

Describe Gewitz’s study on parental choice

Privileged school choosers: Middle-class, professional parents who use their economic and cultural capital to secure better education for their children. They understand school admission processes and can afford additional costs, like travel, to access better schools.

Disconnected local choosers: Working-class parents with limited economic and cultural capital, making it harder to navigate school admissions. They prioritise safety and facilities over league tables, and travel costs are a major barrier.

Semi-skilled choosers: Working-class parents who are somewhat informed but lack the resources or knowledge to fully navigate the system. They may have some understanding of school choices but are often constrained by economic limitations, such as not being able to afford travel costs to schools they prefer.

Describe academies as a conservative led policy

From 2010, all scholls were encouraged to leave local authority control and to become academies. Fucnding was taken from local authority budgest and goven to academies, who also had control over their curriculum

By 2017, 68% of all secondary schools had converted to academy status. Some are funded privatley, and some are funded by the state

However, by allowing schools to become an academy, this removed the focus on reducing inequality

Describe free schools as conservative government policies

Free schools are state-funded but not controlled by the local authority. They are set up by parents, teachers, charities, businesses, or religious groups.
Supporters argue they raise standards through innovation, choice, and parent/teacher control. They are seen as increasing competition in the education system, driving up quality.

However, critics argue free schools can divert funding from other schools, increase inequality, and may benefit middle-class families most.

What are the criticisms of free schools

In Allen’s research from Sweden, where 20% of schools are free schools, she shows that they only benefit children from highly educated families.

Critics argue free schools are socially divisive and they lower standards, such as Sweden’s international ranking has fallen since their introduction.

In England, evidence shows that free schools take fewer disadvantaged pupils than nearby schools. For example, in 2011, only 6.4% of pupils at Bristol free school were eligable for free school meals, compared with 22.5% of pupils across the city as a whole

Describe Ball’s idea of fragmentation and centralisation related to academies and free schools

Fragmentation - The comprehensive school system is being replaced by a ptachwork of diverse provision, mcuh of it involving private providers, leading to greater inequality in opportunities

Centralisation of control - Government has teh power to allow or require schools to become academies or allow free schools to be set up. These schools are funded directly by the central government. Their rapid growth leads to reduced role of elected local authorities in education

Describe conservative policies to reduce education inequalities

Free schools meals

Pupil preium - Money schools recieve for pupils from disdavantaged backgrounds. However, Oftsed found that in many cases the pupil premium isnt spent on those it is supposed to be used for. Only 1 in 10 headteachers said it had signifacantly changed hpw they supported pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds

Describe the blurring of the public/private boundary

Senior official in the public sector now leave or set up or work for private sector education businesses. These companies then bid for contracts to provide services to schools and local authorities. As Pollack notes, this flow of personnel allows companies to buy ‘insider knowledge’ to help win contracts

Describe the privatisation and the globalisation of education policy

Many private companies involved in education services industr are foreign owned, such as Edexcel is owned by a US publishing firm, Pearson and even marks exams in places such as Sydney and Iowa

Describe the cola-isation of schools

he private sector is subtly reaching audiences through schools, for example, by placing vending machines on school premises — a process referred to as the ‘cola-isation’ of schools.

According to Molnar, private companies target schools because they naturally hold a great deal of goodwill, which can lend legitimacy to anything associated with them. In other words, schools act as a form of product endorsement.

However, the benefits of private sector involvement for schools and students are often minimal. Ball highlighted this in a case where a Cadbury sports equipment promotion was scrapped after it was revealed that students would have to consume 5,440 chocolate bars just to qualify for a single set of volleyball posts.

Describe teh concept of education as a commodity

Education as a Commodity refers to the idea that education is treated like a product to be bought, sold, and consumed, rather than a public good.

Ball concludes that a fundamental change os taking place in which privatisation os becoming the key factor shaping educational policy. Policies are increasingly focused on moving educational services out of teh public sector, to be provided by firms instead. In this process, education os neomh turned into a ‘legitimate object of private profit making’

From a amrxist perspective, Hall suggests that privatisation shifts education towards private investment, prioritising economic outcomes over personal development and social cohesion. Both criticise this trend, claiming it narrows educational experiences as schools focus on performance metrics and marketability.

Descibe gender policies on education

In the 19th century, girls were disadvantaged as they had to have higher 11+ grade to get into grammar schools

Since the 1970s, policis such as GIST have been introduced to reduce gender differences in subject choice

Describe assimilation polcies on ethnicity relating to education

Assimilation policies aimed to integrate minority ethnic groups into the dominant culture, often expecting students to abandon their own cultural identities. These policies focused on teaching English and promoting national values, assuming this would help minority students succeed.

Critics argue that some groups at a greater risk of underachieving such as afro caribbean already speak English

Describe multicultural polcies on ethnicity relating to education

multicultural policies recognised the value of cultural diversity, encouraging schools to celebrate different ethnic backgrounds and incorporate diverse perspectives into the curriculum

However, STone argues that black pupils dont fail for lack of self esteem, so MCE is misguided. As well as this, critical race theorists argue taht MCE just picks out stereotypical features of minority cultures for inclusion in the curriculum, but fails to tackle institutional racism

Describe social inclusion policies on ethnicity relating to education

social inclusion policies have aimed to tackle broader inequalities by addressing issues like racism, discrimination, and unequal opportunities in education, promoting equal access and outcomes for all ethnic groups.