Year-Long APUSH Review

Every single term from ever outline I've done throughout the year minus unit 1.

Chattel Slavery

A system of slavery where individuals are treated as personal property that can be bought, sold, or inherited. Enslaved people have no rights or freedoms and are considered the legal property of their owners.

Encomiendas

Grants of land and the labor of indigenous people in Spanish colonies during the 16th and 17th centuries. Encomenderos, holders of encomiendas, extracted labor and tribute from indigenous communities in exchange for "protection" and Christianization, often leading to labor exploitation and abuse.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, foods, human populations, diseases, and ideas between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres following Christopher Columbus's voyages to the Americas in 1492. This exchange had profound effects on the cultures, economies, and environments of both hemispheres, leading to significant demographic, ecological, and agricultural changes.

Spanish Armada

A fleet of Spanish naval vessels sent by King Philip II of Spain in 1588 to invade England and overthrow Queen Elizabeth I. The Spanish Armada's defeat by the English fleet marked a turning point in European naval power and the decline of Spanish dominance in the Atlantic.

Mercantilism

An economic theory and practice dominant in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries that emphasized the accumulation of wealth, particularly through a favorable balance of trade. Mercantilist policies included export promotion, import restrictions, the acquisition of colonies for resources and markets, and the establishment of monopolies and tariffs to protect domestic industries.

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in North America, established in 1607 in present-day Virginia. It was founded by the Virginia Company and initially faced significant challenges, including disease, food shortages, and conflict with Native American tribes. Jamestown later became a successful tobacco-growing colony and played a crucial role in the development of the British colonies in America.

John Rolfe

An English settler in the early 17th century who played a significant role in the development of the Virginia colony. Rolfe is best known for introducing and successfully cultivating tobacco as a cash crop in Jamestown, which helped to stabilize the colony's economy and attract more settlers. He also married Pocahontas, the daughter of Chief Powhatan, which temporarily improved relations between the English and Native Americans in the region.

Powhattan

The chief of several Native American tribes in the Chesapeake Bay region, including the Powhatan Confederacy, during the early 17th century. Powhatan's real name was Wahunsenacawh, but he is commonly known by his title. He controlled a large territory in present-day Virginia and had significant influence over neighboring tribes. Powhatan interacted with English colonists, including those at Jamestown, initially maintaining a cautious relationship before tensions and conflicts arose over land, resources, and cultural differences.

House of Burgesses

The first legislative assembly in the English colonies of North America, established in 1619 in the Virginia colony. It was initially convened by the Virginia Company and later continued by the royal governor. The House of Burgesses played a crucial role in colonial self-government, passing laws and regulations for the colony's governance and representing the interests of Virginia's settlers.

Royal Colony

A type of colonial administration in which a colony is directly governed by a monarch or their appointed representative, such as a royal governor. In a royal colony, the monarch or their appointed officials have significant control over the colony's administration, including the appointment of key officials, the enactment of laws, and the collection of taxes. Royal colonies were common in the British Empire and were characterized by a centralized authority that often led to tensions with local assemblies or elected bodies.

Lord Baltimore

A title held by the founder and proprietor of the Maryland colony in colonial America. The first Lord Baltimore was George Calvert, who initially sought to establish a colony where English Catholics could practice their religion freely. After his death, the title passed to his son Cecilius Calvert, who continued the efforts to establish and govern the Maryland colony. Lord Baltimore and his descendants played a significant role in the development and administration of Maryland, including the enactment of the Maryland Toleration Act, which granted religious freedom to all Christians in the colony.

Headright System

A land distribution system used in colonial America, particularly in the Southern colonies, during the 17th and 18th centuries. Under the Headright System, land grants were given to individuals, known as "headrights," who paid for their passage to the colonies or to those who sponsored the passage of others. Each headright typically entitled the recipient to a certain amount of land, encouraging immigration and the development of agricultural settlements.

Indentured Servitude

A labor system prevalent in colonial America, particularly during the 17th and 18th centuries, in which individuals contracted to work for a specified period, typically ranging from four to seven years, in exchange for passage to the colonies, food, clothing, and shelter. Indentured servants were bound by a legal contract known as an indenture, which outlined the terms of their service and obligations. After completing their term of service, they were often granted land or other benefits as specified in the contract.

Samuel de Champlain

A French explorer, navigator, and cartographer known as the "Father of New France." Champlain played a crucial role in the early exploration and settlement of Canada, particularly in the region of Quebec. He founded Quebec City in 1608 and made several voyages exploring the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes region, establishing trade relationships with Indigenous peoples and mapping the areas he explored. Champlain's efforts contributed significantly to French colonization in North America.

Henry Hudson

An English explorer and navigator known for his voyages in the early 17th century. Hudson made several attempts to find a northwest passage to Asia for trade purposes, exploring regions including the Arctic Ocean, the northeastern coast of North America, and Hudson Bay. He is credited with the discovery of Hudson Bay in 1610 during his final voyage, which ended in a mutiny by his crew, leading to Hudson's disappearance. His explorations contributed to European knowledge of North American geography.

New Amsterdam

A Dutch colonial settlement founded in 1626 on the southern tip of Manhattan Island, which later became New York City. It served as the capital of the Dutch colony of New Netherland. New Amsterdam was a diverse trading hub, with a population of Dutch, English, Africans, and other European and Indigenous peoples. In 1664, the English captured New Amsterdam, renaming it New York after the Duke of York, and it became a significant English colonial city.

Pilgrims

A group of English Separatists who migrated to America seeking religious freedom and established the Plymouth Colony in 1620. They were also known as the Mayflower Pilgrims because they arrived in America aboard the Mayflower ship. The Pilgrims played a significant role in early American history, particularly in the development of democratic institutions and the relationship between European settlers and Native American tribes in the region.

Puritans

A group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to "purify" the Church of England from what they viewed as Roman Catholic remnants. Puritans emphasized strict religious discipline, simplicity in worship, and moral purity. Facing persecution in England, many Puritans migrated to America, where they established colonies such as Massachusetts Bay Colony. Their influence contributed to the development of a strong work ethic, educational institutions, and a lasting impact on American culture and values.

John Winthrop

An English Puritan lawyer, landowner, and one of the founders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Winthrop served as the colony's governor for several terms and played a significant role in its early development. He is best known for his writings and speeches emphasizing the colony's religious mission and the idea of a "City upon a Hill," which became a foundational concept in American history, symbolizing the Puritan community's vision of a model society based on religious principles.

“City Upon a Hill”

A phrase used by John Winthrop, a leader of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, in a sermon delivered aboard the Arbella in 1630. Winthrop described the Puritan colony as a "City upon a Hill" or a shining example to the world, emphasizing the idea of creating a model Christian community based on moral and religious principles. The phrase has since become synonymous with the American ideal of exceptionalism and the belief in creating a society that serves as a positive example for others to emulate.

Joint-Stock Corporation

A business entity in which ownership is divided into shares or stocks, allowing multiple investors to pool their capital and share in the profits and losses of the company. Joint-stock corporations were a significant development in the growth of capitalism and investment during the early modern period. They allowed for the mobilization of large amounts of capital for ventures such as colonial exploration, trade expeditions, and infrastructure projects.

Roger Williams

A Puritan minister and theologian who founded the colony of Rhode Island in 1636 as a refuge for religious freedom and separation of church and state. Williams advocated for the fair treatment of Native Americans, the complete separation of church and state, and freedom of religion for all individuals, including those with differing beliefs. His ideas greatly influenced the development of religious freedom and tolerance in America.

Anne Hutchinson

A Puritan religious leader and advocate for religious freedom in colonial America during the 17th century. Hutchinson held religious meetings in her home, challenging the authority of the clergy and promoting the idea that individuals could communicate directly with God without the need for intermediaries such as ministers. Her views, considered radical by the Puritan establishment, led to her trial and banishment from the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1638. Hutchinson later settled in Rhode Island and played a role in the development of religious tolerance and individual liberty in the region.

Pequot War

A conflict that took place in 1637 between English colonists allied with Native American tribes, such as the Mohegan and Narragansett, against the Pequot tribe in present-day Connecticut. The war was sparked by tensions over land, trade, and competition for fur resources. The conflict culminated in the Mystic Massacre, where English and Native American forces attacked a Pequot village, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of Pequot men, women, and children. The Pequot War marked a significant turning point in the colonization of New England, leading to the near-elimination of the Pequot tribe and the expansion of English settlements in the region.

Metacom’s War/King Philips War

A conflict that occurred in 1675-1678 between Native American tribes, primarily the Wampanoag, Narragansett, and Nipmuc, and English colonists in New England. The war was named after Metacom, also known as King Philip, the Wampanoag chief who led the Native American alliance against the encroachment of English settlers on their lands and the imposition of English authority.

The war was characterized by brutal raids, massacres, and sieges on both sides. It resulted in widespread destruction, loss of life, and displacement of Native American communities. The English ultimately prevailed, but the war significantly weakened Native American resistance in the region and marked a turning point in colonial-Indigenous relations in New England.

William Berkeley

Colonial governor of Virginia during the mid-17th century, known for his favoritism towards the wealthy planter class and his policies that led to social tensions. His administration oversaw Virginia's transformation into a tobacco-based economy and faced challenges like Bacon's Rebellion, which highlighted grievances against his governance. After Bacon's Rebellion, Berkeley's influence waned, culminating in his removal as governor.

Bacon’s Rebellion

An armed uprising in colonial Virginia in 1676 led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor William Berkeley's administration. The rebellion was fueled by grievances among small farmers and frontiersmen over economic inequality, political corruption, and Native American policies. Bacon's forces, consisting of both poor whites and enslaved Africans, attacked Native American settlements and clashed with colonial authorities. Although the rebellion was initially successful in forcing reforms and securing land for farmers, it was ultimately suppressed, leading to executions and the consolidation of power by the colonial elite. Bacon's Rebellion highlighted social and economic tensions in colonial society and had lasting effects on labor, race relations, and governance in Virginia.

Charles II

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1660 to 1685, known for his restoration to the throne after the English Civil War and the rule of Oliver Cromwell. Charles II's reign marked a period of relative stability and the reestablishment of the monarchy in England. He pursued a policy of religious tolerance, issuing the Declaration of Breda in 1660, which offered amnesty to former enemies and promised freedom of worship. Charles II's reign also saw the expansion of British overseas territories, including the colonization of the Carolinas in North America. However, his reign was not without controversy, as he faced conflicts with Parliament over issues such as royal prerogative and the succession to the throne, particularly due to his Catholic sympathies and lack of legitimate heirs.

Restoration Colonies

A group of English colonies established during the period of the Restoration in England, which lasted from 1660 to 1688. These colonies were granted charters by King Charles II and aimed to expand English influence in North America. The Restoration Colonies included Carolina (later split into North and South Carolina), New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These colonies were characterized by diverse populations, including English settlers, Dutch settlers in New York and New Jersey, Swedish settlers in Delaware (part of New Sweden at the time), and various indigenous peoples. The establishment of these colonies contributed to the growth of English colonial power and the development of colonial society in North America.

Society of Friends

Also known as Quakers, the Society of Friends is a religious movement founded in England during the mid-17th century by George Fox. Quakers emphasize direct experience of God, equality among believers, and a commitment to peace, simplicity, and social justice. They reject formal rituals and clergy, believing in the priesthood of all believers. Quakers have historically been active in social reform movements, including abolitionism, women's rights, and pacifism. They played a significant role in the development of Pennsylvania as a haven for religious freedom under the leadership of William Penn, himself a Quaker.

William Penn

An English Quaker and founder of the colony of Pennsylvania in 1681. Penn was granted a charter by King Charles II to establish a colony where Quakers and others could practice their religion freely and govern themselves democratically. Penn's vision for Pennsylvania included principles of religious tolerance, fair treatment of Native Americans, and representative government. He implemented policies that promoted peaceful relations with indigenous peoples, leading to the "Great Treaty" with the Lenape tribe. Penn's ideals of religious freedom and democratic governance had a lasting impact on the development of Pennsylvania and influenced the broader concepts of religious liberty and democratic principles in America.

Navigation Acts (1651-1751)

A series of English laws enacted to regulate colonial trade and bolster England's economic interests by restricting trade between the colonies and other nations. The Navigation Acts required that certain colonial goods be shipped only to England or other English colonies, ensuring that England benefited from the trade. These acts also mandated the use of English ships and crews for transporting colonial goods, further strengthening England's maritime power. While the Navigation Acts were intended to benefit the English economy, they often led to tensions and smuggling in the colonies, contributing to the growing discontent that eventually led to the American Revolution.

Dominion of New England

A political entity established by King James II in 1686 that combined several New England colonies, including Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and later New York and New Jersey, under a single royal governor appointed by the crown. The purpose of the Dominion was to strengthen royal control over the colonies, enforce the Navigation Acts, and suppress local autonomy and dissent. The Dominion of New England implemented unpopular policies such as increased taxation and restrictions on colonial assemblies, leading to widespread resentment among colonists and contributing to the growing tensions that eventually led to the Glorious Revolution in England and the collapse of the Dominion in 1689.

Sir Edmund Andros

An English colonial administrator appointed as the royal governor of the Dominion of New England by King James II in 1686. Andros was tasked with enforcing the policies of the Dominion, including increased taxation, strict enforcement of the Navigation Acts, and centralized control over the New England colonies. His administration was marked by authoritarian rule and clashes with colonial assemblies and local governments, leading to widespread resentment and opposition among colonists. Andros's actions contributed to the growing discontent that culminated in the Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689, during which he was deposed from power, and the Dominion of New England was dissolved.

The Glorious Revolution

A peaceful and relatively bloodless political revolution in England in 1688-1689, during which King James II was overthrown and replaced by William III (William of Orange) and Mary II. The revolution was triggered by concerns over James II's policies, including his attempts to centralize power, his Catholic sympathies, and his disregard for parliamentary authority. The Glorious Revolution resulted in the establishment of constitutional monarchy in England, as outlined in the Bill of Rights of 1689, which limited the power of the monarchy, affirmed the rights of Parliament, and guaranteed certain individual liberties. The Glorious Revolution had significant implications for England's political system, setting the stage for the development of parliamentary democracy and the rule of law.

Declaration of Rights (1689)

The Declaration of Rights, also known as the Bill of Rights of 1689, was a landmark document in English constitutional history that affirmed and codified key principles of limited monarchy, parliamentary supremacy, and individual liberties. It was issued by Parliament following the Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689, which saw the overthrow of King James II and the ascension of William III and Mary II to the throne. The Declaration of Rights outlined various grievances against James II's reign, such as arbitrary taxation, interference with legal proceedings, and the maintenance of a standing army in peacetime without parliamentary consent. It also established fundamental rights and principles, including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment, the right to petition the king, the freedom of speech in Parliament, and the right to bear arms for self-defense. The Declaration of Rights laid the foundation for constitutional monarchy in England, marking a significant shift towards parliamentary sovereignty and the protection of individual liberties.

Constitutional Monarchy

A form of government in which a monarch serves as the ceremonial head of state while political power is vested in a constitutionally established body, such as a parliament or assembly. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch's powers are limited by law and are typically symbolic or ceremonial, with actual governance and decision-making carried out by elected officials or representatives. Constitutional monarchies often feature a separation of powers between the monarchy and the government, ensuring that the monarch's role is primarily ceremonial and non-political. This form of government is commonly found in modern democracies, where the monarch's influence is tempered by democratic institutions and the rule of law.

South Atlantic System

Complex economic and social system that developed in the Atlantic world during the 17th to 19th centuries, primarily involving European powers, Africa, and the Americas. It was centered around the trade of enslaved Africans, agricultural commodities such as sugar, tobacco, coffee, and cotton, and manufactured goods between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. The system was characterized by the triangular trade routes where European ships carried goods to Africa in exchange for enslaved people, who were then transported to the Americas to work on plantations. The raw materials produced by enslaved labor in the Americas were then sent back to Europe for processing and consumption. The South Atlantic System had profound effects on economies, societies, and cultures in Europe, Africa, and the Americas, shaping patterns of colonization, slavery, and global trade.

West Indies

Group of islands located in the Caribbean Sea, including the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico) and the Lesser Antilles (such as Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and the Windward and Leeward Islands). These islands were colonized by various European powers, primarily Spain, France, England, and the Netherlands, during the age of exploration and colonization. The West Indies played a crucial role in the Atlantic world's economy, particularly during the era of plantation economies based on sugarcane, tobacco, coffee, and other crops cultivated by enslaved Africans. The region also became a center of trade, piracy, and cultural exchange, with diverse populations of Indigenous peoples, Africans, Europeans, and later, Asians contributing to the development of distinct Caribbean cultures.

Middle Passage

Second leg of the triangular trade route during the transatlantic slave trade, which involved the transportation of enslaved Africans from Africa to the Americas. This leg of the journey was notoriously brutal and inhumane, with enslaved people packed tightly into the cargo holds of slave ships for the long voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. Conditions on board were horrific, characterized by overcrowding, disease, malnutrition, and physical abuse. Many enslaved Africans did not survive the Middle Passage, succumbing to illness, starvation, or suicide. The Middle Passage played a significant role in the transatlantic slave trade, which had devastating consequences for millions of Africans and their descendants, contributing to the forced migration and exploitation of African peoples in the Americas.

“Killer Crops”

Agricultural commodities such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton that played a central role in the development of the Atlantic slave trade and the South Atlantic System during the colonial period. These crops were called this due to their significant impact on human populations, particularly enslaved Africans who were forced to cultivate them under harsh conditions on plantations. The cultivation of sugar, tobacco, and cotton led to widespread exploitation, suffering, and mortality among enslaved laborers, contributing to the economic prosperity of European colonies while causing immense human suffering and loss of life. The term highlights the dark legacy of these crops and their role in perpetuating the institution of slavery and colonial exploitation in the Atlantic world.

The Stono Rebellion

Significant slave rebellion that took place in South Carolina in 1739. It began on September 9 when a group of enslaved Africans seized weapons and marched towards Florida, where they believed they could find freedom with the Spanish. Along the way, they killed several plantation owners and recruited more enslaved people to join their rebellion. The rebellion was quickly suppressed by colonial militia forces, leading to the deaths of many rebels. The Stono Rebellion had a lasting impact on slave codes and laws in the Southern colonies, resulting in stricter control and harsher treatment of enslaved individuals to prevent future uprisings.

Chesapeake Gentility

The social and cultural aspirations of the planter elite in the Chesapeake Bay region during the colonial period, particularly in Virginia and Maryland. This social class sought to emulate European aristocratic ideals of refinement, elegance, and sophistication, often through displays of wealth, education, manners, and leisure activities. Chesapeake Gentility was characterized by large plantation estates, lavish homes, fine clothing, elaborate dinners, and participation in cultural pursuits such as literature, music, and art. While the planter elite in the Chesapeake region strived to establish themselves as a genteel aristocracy, their wealth and status were often built on the labor of enslaved Africans and indentured servants, highlighting the complexities and contradictions of colonial society.

Bills of Exchange

Financial instruments used in international trade and commerce to facilitate the exchange of goods and services between parties in different countries. They are written orders from one party (the drawer) to another (the drawee) to pay a specified sum of money to a third party (the payee) at a predetermined future date or on demand. Bills of Exchange serve as a form of credit and payment mechanism, allowing businesses to conduct transactions without the need for immediate cash or upfront payment. They are commonly used in import-export transactions, providing security and assurance to sellers while allowing buyers flexibility in payment terms.

Salutary Neglect

British colonial policy in the 17th and 18th centuries characterized by a relaxed enforcement of trade regulations and minimal interference in the internal affairs of the American colonies. During this period, British authorities were more focused on other global conflicts and challenges, leading to a de facto tolerance of smuggling, limited taxation, and colonial self-governance. Salutary Neglect allowed the colonies to develop a degree of economic and political autonomy, fostering a sense of independence and self-reliance among colonists. However, this policy also contributed to growing tensions between the colonies and Britain, as colonists became accustomed to greater freedom and resented attempts to tighten control and impose taxes in later years, ultimately leading to events like the American Revolution.

Sir Robert Walpole

Prominent British statesman who served as the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1721 to 1742, although the title of Prime Minister was not officially used during his time. Walpole is often regarded as the architect of modern British parliamentary government due to his skilled management of political affairs and establishment of the principles of cabinet government and party politics. He was known for his pragmatic approach to governance, fiscal policies aimed at stability and economic growth, and efforts to maintain peace and stability both domestically and internationally. Walpole's long tenure in office and ability to navigate political challenges earned him the nickname "the Great Manager," and his influence helped shape the foundations of the modern British political system.

Patronage

Practice of giving support, often in the form of jobs, contracts, favors, or privileges, to individuals or groups in exchange for their loyalty, political support, or services. In political contexts, patronage is commonly used by those in positions of power, such as government officials or leaders, to reward supporters, maintain influence, and build alliances. While patronage can be a tool for building networks and achieving political goals, it can also lead to accusations of favoritism, corruption, and nepotism if not managed transparently and fairly.

The War on Jenkins’s Ear (1739-41)

Conflict that took place between 1739 and 1741 primarily between Great Britain and Spain, although it involved other European powers as well. The war was sparked by tensions over trade disputes and alleged Spanish mistreatment of British merchants, symbolized by an incident where the British captain Robert Jenkins claimed to have had his ear severed by Spanish forces. The conflict began in the Caribbean and South America, with naval engagements and raids on Spanish colonies, but it later spread to Europe as part of the wider War of the Austrian Succession. The war's name reflects the symbolic significance of Jenkins's ear as a rallying cry for British retaliation against Spanish aggression, although its broader causes and consequences extended beyond this single incident.

War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48)

Primarily in Central Europe and involving major European powers. The war was triggered by the death of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and the subsequent disputed succession to the Habsburg throne, with Maria Theresa of Austria facing challenges to her claim as ruler. The conflict saw Austria, supported by Britain and the Dutch Republic, facing off against France, Prussia, and Spain. Battles and diplomatic maneuvering resulted in territorial changes and the recognition of Maria Theresa's right to rule, although some disputed territories remained unresolved until later treaties. The war's aftermath set the stage for further power struggles and conflicts in Europe leading up to the Seven Years' War.

Molasses Act (1733)

British law that imposed heavy duties on the importation of molasses, rum, and sugar from non-British colonies in the Caribbean, primarily aimed at curbing trade between the American colonies and the French and Dutch West Indies. The act was part of Britain's mercantilist policies, which sought to control colonial trade and protect British economic interests. However, the Molasses Act faced widespread resistance and smuggling in the American colonies, as it significantly increased the cost of imported goods and disrupted the thriving trade relations between the colonies and the Caribbean. The act's enforcement was lax, and colonists often circumvented it through illicit trade, contributing to growing tensions between the colonies and Britain over economic autonomy and trade regulations.

Yeoman Society

Social structure characterized by a class of independent small-scale farmers or landowners known as yeomen. In such societies, yeomen typically owned their land and worked it themselves, often with the help of family members or hired laborers. They were seen as the backbone of rural communities, contributing to agricultural production and local economies while maintaining a degree of economic self-sufficiency and social independence. Yeoman societies were prevalent in agricultural regions during various historical periods, such as medieval England and colonial America, and were often associated with notions of civic virtue, self-reliance, and democratic ideals.

Household Mode of Production

An economic system prevalent in pre-industrial societies, particularly in agrarian communities, where production is primarily organized within individual households or family units. In this mode of production, households typically own or have access to their means of production, such as land, tools, and labor. Production activities, including farming, crafts, and domestic work, are often carried out within the household and involve family members working together to meet their subsistence needs. Surplus goods may be traded or exchanged within local or regional networks. The Household Mode of Production is characterized by a decentralized and self-sufficient approach to economic activity, with production closely tied to social relationships, kinship ties, and community cooperation.

Tenant Farming

Agricultural system in which individuals or families, known as tenants, rent or lease land from landowners or landlords to cultivate crops or raise livestock. In this arrangement, the tenants typically pay rent in cash, produce, or labor, depending on the terms of the agreement. Tenant farming can vary widely in terms of land tenure, lease duration, and the responsibilities of tenants and landlords. It has been a common practice throughout history and continues to be an important aspect of agricultural economies, providing opportunities for individuals to access land and engage in farming without owning property outright. However, tenant farming arrangements can also lead to economic challenges and dependency on landowners, particularly in cases where tenants lack secure land rights or face exploitative conditions.

Scots-Irish

Also known as Ulster Scots, were a predominantly Presbyterian and Protestant group of people from Scotland who settled in the northern provinces of Ireland, particularly Ulster, during the 17th century. Many Scots-Irish migrated to British North America, especially the American colonies, in search of economic opportunities, religious freedom, and land. They played a significant role in the colonial history of America, contributing to the development of frontier regions such as the Appalachian Mountains and the backcountry of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas. The Scots-Irish brought with them a strong independent spirit, a tradition of self-reliance, and a willingness to adapt to frontier life, influencing American culture, politics, and social dynamics.

The Enlightenment

Intellectual movement in 17th and 18th century Europe emphasizing reason, science, and individualism. It promoted ideas of progress, religious tolerance, and democratic ideals, influencing fields like politics, philosophy, and science, and laying the groundwork for modern democratic principles and human rights.

John Locke

Prominent Enlightenment philosopher whose ideas profoundly influenced modern political thought. His major works, including the "Two Treatises of Government," advocated for concepts such as natural rights, the social contract, and limited government. Locke argued that individuals have inherent rights to life, liberty, and property, and that governments derive their legitimacy from the consent of the governed. He also emphasized the importance of separation of powers and the right to revolution against unjust rulers. Locke's ideas laid the foundation for democratic governance, individual freedoms, and the rule of law in Western political philosophy.

Deists

Thinkers during the Enlightenment who believed in a rational and naturalistic view of the world, rejecting supernatural explanations and religious dogma. They held that God, while creating the universe, did not intervene in human affairs or reveal truths through religious scriptures. Instead, they believed in the power of human reason and science to understand the natural laws governing the universe. Deists emphasized ethics, morality, and the pursuit of knowledge based on observation and critical thinking, contributing to the development of secularism and the separation of church and state in modern societies.

Great Awakening

Religious revival movement that swept through British American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, characterized by passionate preaching, emotional experiences, and a focus on personal salvation. Led by charismatic preachers such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, the Great Awakening emphasized spiritual renewal, individual conversion, and a direct relationship with God, challenging traditional religious institutions and practices. It had a profound impact on colonial society, fostering religious diversity, encouraging a sense of personal agency, and contributing to the development of evangelical Christianity in America.

Pietism

Religious movement that emerged in the late 17th century within Protestant Christianity, particularly in Germany. It emphasized personal piety, spiritual renewal, and a heartfelt, experiential relationship with God over strict adherence to doctrinal orthodoxy or institutionalized religion. Pietists sought to revitalize faith through Bible study, prayer, ethical living, and community support. They emphasized the importance of religious experience and emotional engagement in worship, leading to a greater emphasis on individual spiritual growth and a more personal approach to Christianity. Pietism had a significant impact on Protestant theology, education, and social reform, influencing movements such as evangelicalism and the development of modern religious practices.

Jonathan Edwards

Prominent American theologian and preacher during the Great Awakening in the 18th century. Known for his powerful and eloquent sermons, Edwards emphasized the concepts of divine sovereignty, human depravity, and the necessity of religious conversion. His most famous sermon, "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," delivered in 1741, vividly portrayed the wrath of God and the urgent need for repentance. Edwards's writings and preaching style played a significant role in shaping the religious landscape of colonial America and inspiring spiritual revival movements.

George Whitefield

English preacher and evangelist during the 18th century, known for his influential role in the First Great Awakening, a religious revival movement in Britain and the American colonies. Whitefield's powerful preaching style and ability to captivate large audiences made him a leading figure in the spread of evangelical Christianity. He traveled extensively throughout the American colonies, delivering sermons that emphasized salvation through faith in Christ and personal conversion. Whitefield's preaching had a significant impact on colonial society, contributing to the growth of evangelicalism, religious enthusiasm, and new religious denominations.

Benjamin Franklin

An American polymath, statesman, inventor, scientist, and writer who played a crucial role in the American Revolution and the founding of the United States. Franklin's accomplishments include his experiments with electricity, leading to the invention of the lightning rod and his contributions to the understanding of electrical phenomena. He was also a leading figure in colonial America, serving as a diplomat to France during the Revolution and helping to negotiate the Treaty of Paris, which ended the war and secured American independence. Franklin's writings, including his autobiography and Poor Richard's Almanack, are renowned for their wisdom and wit, making him one of the most influential figures of his time.

“Old Lights” v. “New Lights”

Terms used during the Great Awakening, a religious revival in colonial America during the 18th century, to describe two factions within Protestant Christianity. The "Old Lights" were traditionalists who adhered to established religious practices and institutions, often skeptical of the emotional and dramatic elements of the Great Awakening. In contrast, the "New Lights" were proponents of the revival, emphasizing personal spiritual experiences, emotional fervor, and a more direct connection with God. The division between Old Lights and New Lights reflected broader tensions between conservative and innovative religious movements during this period, shaping the development of American religious identity and denominationalism.

Albany Congress

Meeting of colonial delegates and representatives from various Native American tribes held in Albany, New York, in 1754. The primary purpose of the congress was to discuss and coordinate a unified defense strategy against French forces during the French and Indian War. It was also notable for Benjamin Franklin's proposal of the Albany Plan of Union, which aimed to create a unified colonial government for mutual defense and cooperation. While the Albany Plan was not adopted by the colonies or the British government at the time, it laid the groundwork for later discussions about colonial unity and ultimately influenced the formation of the United States government.

William Pitt

British statesman who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain during the Seven Years' War, from 1756 to 1761, and again from 1766 to 1768. He was known for his strong leadership, strategic military planning, and support for British colonial expansion, especially in North America and India. Pitt's policies during the Seven Years' War, including alliances with Prussia and British military victories, contributed significantly to British imperial power and territorial gains. He also advocated for greater representation of American colonists in British Parliament, laying the groundwork for future discussions on colonial rights and autonomy.

Fort Duquesne

Strategic French fortification located at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Built in 1754 during the French and Indian War, it served as a key military outpost for French forces in the Ohio Valley region. The fort's location was of great importance due to its control over crucial trade routes and access to Native American allies. Fort Duquesne became a focal point of conflict between the French and British, leading to its capture and subsequent renaming to Fort Pitt by the British in 1758 after they gained control of the area.

Battle of Quebec

Pivotal conflict during the French and Indian War, fought on September 13, 1759, near Quebec City, Canada. British forces under the command of General James Wolfe launched a surprise attack on French forces led by General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm. The battle culminated in a decisive British victory, resulting in the capture of Quebec City and effectively ending French control over Canada. The battle is significant for its impact on the outcome of the war, leading to the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which ceded Canada to the British Empire and marked the beginning of British dominance in North America.

Treaty of Paris, 1763

Document signed in 1763, marked the end of the Seven Years' War (known as the French and Indian War in North America) and the beginning of a new era in European colonial power dynamics. The treaty was signed by Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, with significant territorial changes. France ceded Canada to Britain and gave up claims to territories east of the Mississippi River, while Spain ceded Florida to Britain. Britain emerged as the dominant colonial power in North America and India, gaining control of French territories in Canada and India. The Treaty of Paris reshaped colonial borders and laid the groundwork for future conflicts and alliances, setting the stage for the American Revolutionary War and shaping global colonial rivalries in the 18th century.

Pontiac’s Rebellion

Major Native American uprising against British colonial rule in the Great Lakes region and Ohio Valley in 1763-1766. Led by Ottawa chief Pontiac, the rebellion aimed to resist British encroachment on Native American lands, loss of autonomy, and mistreatment by British authorities. The rebellion involved coordinated attacks on British forts and settlements, leading to a protracted conflict marked by brutal violence on both sides. Although the rebellion initially achieved some success, including the capture of several British forts, it ultimately ended in defeat for the Native American forces due to lack of unity, resources, and support. The aftermath of Pontiac's Rebellion led to the implementation of the Proclamation of 1763, which restricted colonial expansion beyond the Appalachian Mountains and further strained relations between Native Americans and British colonists.

Proclamation of 1763

Decree issued by King George III of England that aimed to regulate colonial expansion in North America following the French and Indian War. The proclamation prohibited British colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains, reserving those lands for Indigenous peoples. This policy was intended to prevent conflicts between colonists and Native Americans, maintain British control over the frontier, and facilitate trade and diplomacy with Indigenous nations. However, the proclamation was widely ignored by colonists who sought land and opportunities for expansion, contributing to tensions that would eventually lead to the American Revolution.

Paxton Boys

Group of frontiersmen from Pennsylvania who engaged in violent actions against Native American tribes in the mid-18th century. They protested what they perceived as inadequate protection from Native American attacks by the colonial government. The Paxton Boys carried out a massacre of peaceful Susquehannock Indians in 1763 and marched on Philadelphia to demand greater security for frontier settlers. Their actions highlighted tensions between colonists and Native Americans and raised questions about the role of the colonial government in protecting its citizens on the frontier.

The Regulators

Group of colonists in colonial America, particularly in North and South Carolina, who organized against perceived corruption, extortionate taxes, and lack of representation in local governments during the mid-18th century. The Regulator movement arose as a response to grievances over unfair practices by colonial officials, including illegal fees, embezzlement, and favoritism towards wealthy elites. The Regulators sought to reform the colonial administration, improve accountability, and ensure fair treatment for all residents, especially small farmers and settlers. The movement culminated in clashes with colonial authorities, notably the Battle of Alamance in 1771, marking a precursor to broader movements for independence and democratic governance in America.

Revenue Act of 1762

Also known as the American Duties Act or the Sugar Act of 1762, was a British law passed by Parliament to raise revenue from the American colonies. The act aimed to address the British government's debt following the Seven Years' War by imposing duties on imported goods such as sugar, molasses, and other commodities. It also strengthened customs enforcement and sought to deter smuggling in the colonies. The Revenue Act of 1762 was met with resistance from colonists who viewed it as another example of taxation without representation, contributing to growing tensions that eventually led to the American Revolution.

King George III

Monarch of Great Britain and Ireland from 1760 to 1820, who oversaw a tumultuous period that included the American Revolutionary War and the Napoleonic Wars. He is known for his struggles with mental illness, particularly porphyria, which affected his ability to rule effectively in his later years. George III's reign witnessed significant changes in British politics, including the rise of parliamentary power, the growth of the British Empire, and the emergence of industrialization. Despite facing challenges such as the loss of the American colonies, George III's reign left a lasting impact on British history, shaping the monarchy's role in constitutional governance and imperial expansion.

George Grenville

British statesman who served as Prime Minister from 1763 to 1765. He is best known for his implementation of policies that contributed to increased tensions between Britain and its American colonies, including the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, which imposed taxes on various paper goods in the colonies without their consent. Grenville's tenure as Prime Minister marked a period of heightened colonial discontent and resistance, setting the stage for the American Revolution.

Currency Act of 1764

British law passed by Parliament that restricted the ability of the American colonies to issue their own paper currency as legal tender. The act aimed to control the colonial economy by prohibiting the printing of new paper money and requiring the colonies to use British currency for trade and payments of debts to Britain. This act was part of a series of measures imposed by Britain on the colonies after the French and Indian War to assert tighter control over colonial finances and reduce the use of colonial currency, which was seen as a threat to British economic interests. The Currency Act of 1764 contributed to growing tensions between the colonies and Britain, leading to further acts of resistance and eventually the American Revolution.

Sugar Act of 1764

British law aimed at increasing revenue from the American colonies by taxing imported sugar and other goods. It replaced the Molasses Act of 1733 and sought to enforce stricter customs regulations and reduce smuggling in the colonies. The Sugar Act led to widespread opposition and resentment among colonists, as they viewed it as an unfair imposition of taxes without representation in Parliament. This discontent contributed to the growing tensions that eventually led to the American Revolution.

Stamp Act of 1765

British law that imposed a direct tax on paper goods and printed materials in the American colonies, including newspapers, legal documents, and playing cards. It required these items to bear a stamp purchased from British authorities, with the revenue intended to help pay for British military forces stationed in the colonies. The Stamp Act was met with widespread opposition and protests by colonists, who saw it as a violation of their rights to be taxed without representation in Parliament. The controversy over the Stamp Act contributed to growing tensions between Britain and the American colonies, eventually leading to the American Revolution.

Virtual Representation

Argued that members of Parliament represented not only their specific geographic constituencies but also the interests of the entire British Empire, including colonies like America, even if they didn't have direct representation in Parliament. Proponents of virtual representation believed that Parliament acted in the best interests of all British subjects, regardless of where they resided. This concept became a point of contention and criticism among American colonists who argued for direct representation in Parliament, leading to tensions and eventually the American Revolution.

Stamp Act Congress

Meeting of delegates from nine American colonies in October 1765 in New York City in response to the British-imposed Stamp Act of 1765. The Congress aimed to protest against the Act, which required the use of stamped paper for various legal and commercial documents, and to assert the colonies' rights to self-governance and taxation. Delegates drafted a petition to King George III and Parliament, arguing that only their elected representatives could impose taxes on the colonies. The Stamp Act Congress marked a significant step towards colonial unity and resistance against British taxation policies, foreshadowing broader protests and eventually leading to the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766.

Sons of Liberty

Secret society formed in the American colonies during the pre-Revolutionary period, active primarily in the years leading up to the American Revolution. Comprised of colonial merchants, artisans, and intellectuals, the Sons of Liberty opposed British taxation and policies they viewed as oppressive, such as the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts. They organized protests, boycotts, and acts of civil disobedience, playing a significant role in rallying public opposition to British rule and fostering a sense of unity and resistance among the colonists. The Sons of Liberty were instrumental in shaping the sentiments that eventually led to the Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution.

Declaratory Act of 1766

British parliamentary statute asserting the authority of the British Parliament over the American colonies, passed alongside the repeal of the Stamp Act. It declared that Parliament had the power to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever," including matters of taxation and governance, without colonial representation. The act aimed to assert British sovereignty and quell colonial challenges to parliamentary authority following the protests against the Stamp Act, but it also fueled further resentment and resistance among American colonists, ultimately contributing to the tensions that led to the American Revolution.

Townshend Act

Series of British laws passed in 1767 that imposed new taxes on imported goods such as tea, glass, paper, and paint in the American colonies. These acts were named after Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer who proposed them, and were intended to raise revenue to pay the salaries of colonial governors and judges, ensuring their loyalty to the British Crown. However, the Townshend Acts faced strong opposition from colonists who saw them as a violation of their rights to be taxed only by their own elected representatives. This opposition contributed to growing tensions between the American colonies and Britain, eventually leading to events such as the Boston Tea Party and further fueling calls for independence.

Restraining Act

Legislative measure passed by the British Parliament in 1775 as part of the response to the growing tensions with the American colonies. It aimed to limit the trade of New England colonies, particularly Massachusetts, with countries outside the British Empire. The act was seen as punitive and aimed to exert economic pressure on the colonies in response to acts of resistance and defiance, such as the Boston Tea Party. The Restraining Act further escalated the tensions that eventually led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War.

The Daughters of Liberty

Group of women in colonial America who actively participated in the resistance against British policies, particularly during the period leading up to the American Revolution. They promoted domestic manufacturing and boycotted British goods as part of non-importation agreements. The Daughters of Liberty were instrumental in producing goods such as cloth, soap, and tea locally, reducing the colonies' reliance on British imports and supporting economic independence. They played a crucial role in the colonial resistance movement and contributed to the spirit of self-sufficiency and patriotism during the revolutionary era.

Lord North

Also known as Frederick North, was a British politician who served as Prime Minister from 1770 to 1782, during a critical period leading up to and during the American Revolutionary War. He is often associated with the policies that contributed to tensions between Britain and its American colonies, including the imposition of taxes such as the Tea Act and the Intolerable Acts, which sparked opposition and ultimately led to the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. Lord North's leadership during this turbulent time faced criticism for its handling of colonial affairs and the failure to prevent the loss of the American colonies.

Committees of Correspondence

Networks of communication established by American colonists in the years leading up to the American Revolution. Formed initially in Massachusetts in 1772, these committees facilitated the exchange of information and ideas among colonies regarding British policies and actions. They played a crucial role in organizing resistance efforts, coordinating protests, and uniting colonists in their grievances against British rule. The Committees of Correspondence helped to foster a sense of unity and solidarity among the colonies, laying the foundation for the cooperative spirit that would lead to the Continental Congress and eventually to the Declaration of Independence.

Tea Act of 1773

British law that granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the American colonies, allowing it to sell tea directly to colonists without going through colonial merchants. The act aimed to help the financially struggling East India Company by reducing its surplus tea inventory while also asserting British authority over colonial trade. However, the Tea Act led to outrage among American colonists, who viewed it as a violation of their rights and as an attempt to impose taxation without representation. This discontent ultimately culminated in the Boston Tea Party, where colonists protested the Tea Act by dumping tea shipments from British ships into Boston Harbor.

Coercive Acts

Also known as the Intolerable Acts, were a series of punitive measures imposed by the British Parliament on the American colonies in 1774. These acts were a response to the Boston Tea Party and aimed to assert British authority and punish Massachusetts for its resistance to British policies. The Coercive Acts included the Boston Port Act, which closed the port of Boston until the destroyed tea was paid for; the Massachusetts Government Act, which altered the colony's charter and limited local self-government; the Administration of Justice Act, which allowed British officials accused of crimes to be tried in Britain; and the Quartering Act, which required colonists to house and feed British troops. These acts further inflamed tensions between Britain and the colonies, leading to increased resistance and eventually the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War.

Quebec Act of 1774

British law that aimed to improve governance in the Province of Quebec, which had recently been acquired from France after the Seven Years' War. The act granted religious freedom and restored French civil law for Quebec's predominantly Catholic population, allowing them to practice their faith and customs. Additionally, the act extended Quebec's boundaries to include the Ohio Valley region, which angered American colonists who saw it as a threat to their land claims. The Quebec Act contributed to tensions between Britain and the American colonies, as it was viewed by colonists as a form of British oppression and a violation of their rights.

Continental Congress

Series of assemblies and meetings held by American colonists in the 18th century, particularly during the Revolutionary War era. The First Continental Congress convened in 1774 in response to tensions with Britain, discussing grievances and colonial rights. The Second Continental Congress, starting in 1775, assumed greater authority and oversaw the Revolutionary War effort, including the Declaration of Independence in 1776. These congresses played a crucial role in organizing colonial resistance, establishing a unified government, and ultimately declaring independence from British rule, laying the foundation for the United States as a sovereign nation.

General Thomas Gage

British military officer who served as the commander-in-chief of British forces in North America during the early stages of the American Revolutionary War. He is known for his role in implementing British policies, including the enforcement of the Intolerable Acts and the attempted seizure of colonial weapons and supplies, which contributed to increasing tensions between the colonies and Britain. Gage's actions, such as the Battles of Lexington and Concord in 1775, marked the beginning of armed conflict between British forces and colonial militias, leading to the outbreak of the Revolutionary War.

April 18, 1775

Marks a pivotal moment in American history as Paul Revere and William Dawes rode to warn colonial militias of British troop movements, leading to the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, which ignited the American Revolutionary War. This event symbolizes the start of armed conflict between American colonists and British forces, marking a decisive step towards colonial independence and the birth of the United States.

Second Continental Congress

Governing body convened by American colonies in 1775 during the early stages of the American Revolutionary War. It functioned as a de facto national government, overseeing military affairs, foreign relations, and the drafting of important documents such as the Declaration of Independence. The Congress represented a significant step towards colonial unity and independence from British rule, laying the groundwork for the formation of the United States as a sovereign nation.

Common Sense

Refers to a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine and published in 1776, advocating for American independence from British rule. It presented arguments in clear and accessible language, appealing to a wide audience and galvanizing support for the revolutionary cause. "Common Sense" challenged the legitimacy of monarchy, argued for the natural rights of individuals, and called for a democratic government based on the consent of the governed. Its widespread distribution and persuasive arguments played a significant role in rallying public sentiment in favor of independence and paved the way for the Declaration of Independence.

Declaration of Independence

Adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, proclaimed the American colonies' separation from British rule and asserted the inherent rights of individuals to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration articulated grievances against King George III's oppressive policies and affirmed the colonies' right to self-governance. It remains a foundational document in American history, embodying the principles of democratic government, individual rights, and the consent of the governed.

Popular Sovereignty

Principle that the authority and legitimacy of government are derived from the consent and will of the people. It asserts that ultimate political power resides with the people, who have the right to govern themselves and make decisions about their collective affairs. Popular sovereignty is a foundational concept in democratic governance, where elected representatives derive their authority from the consent of the governed. This principle is often associated with democratic ideals such as the right to vote, political participation, and the protection of individual rights and freedoms.