PART VChapter 17: Transformations in Europe, 1500-1750Renaissance (Europe)-A time of great creative and intellectual activity that has been described as a "rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture. An Italian Renaissance, generally from the mid-fourteenth to the mid-fifteenth century, and a Northern Renaissance, roughly from the early fifteenth to early seventeenth century, are usually distinguished.The period between 1500 and 1750 was not one of progress. It was a harrowing experience to witness the fierce battle between European soldiers, commerce, and ideas. The Reformation brought widespread religious persecution and warfare, as well as more religious freedom for individuals.Martin Luther is seen in a sixteenth-century woodcut on the door of All Saints Church in Wittenberg, Germany, writing his demands for religious reform with a symbolically enormous quill pen.Beginning in 1519, there was a religious reform movement inside the Latin Christian Church. It led to the formation of various new Christian denominations by the "protesters," including the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, as well as the Church of England.In response to the Protestant Reformation, the Latin Christian Church began a religious reform movement. It revolutionized clerical training and discipline while clarifying Catholic theology.throughout the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the pursuit of people suspected of witchcraft, particularly in northern Europe. The European intellectual movement, which began with planetary motion and other areas of physics and by the seventeenth century had laid the foundations for modern science.Between 1576 and 1597, before the creation of the telescope, Tycho erected Europe's best observatory and set a new standard for accurate astronomical observations.a philosophical movement in eighteenth-century Europe that promoted the idea that society could be better by discovering rational principles that governed social behavior and were as scientific as physics' laws.A limited number of noble families dominated European society, with preferential access to important positions in the church, government, and military, as well as tax exemption in most cases.The class of well-off city dwellers whose money derived from industry, finance, commerce, and related professions in early modern Europe.A joint-stock company is a business that offers shares to individuals to raise money for its trading businesses and distribute the risks (and rewards) across numerous investors, generally supported by a government charter.
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