Issues and debates

Gender in psychology- Universality

*Universality is the belief that all humans are alike, so what is true for one person is true for everyone.

*When applied to gender, universality means all research is assumed to apply equally to both genders.

Gender in psychology- Gender bias

*Gender bias refers to the differential treatment and/or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and not real differences.

*In the context of gender bias, psychological research/theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men and women (usually women).

*This could be a result of sampling bias if studies are conducted predominately on males, and then the findings are presumed to apply to females as well.

Gender in psychology- Androcentrism

*Androcentrism refers to research which is centred and leans particularly in favour of males as the research comes from a male-centred view of the world.

*Psychological research tends to have an androcentric or male bias.

*Androcentric theories offer an interpretation of women based on an understanding of the lives of men.

Gender in psychology- Types of gender bias (Alpha bias)

*Alpha bias within psychological research is the tendency to exaggerate or overestimate differences between men and women.

*Such differences are typically presented as real, fixed and inevitable.

*Although occasionally these differences may occasionally heighten the value of women, they are more likely to devalue females in relation to their male counterparts.

*An example of alpha bias= Freuds psychodynamic approach.

Gender in psychology- Types of gender bias (Beta bias)

*Beta bias is the tendency to minimise or ignore the differences between men and women.

*This often occurs when an androcentric sample is taken, therefore female pp’s are not included as part of the research process and then it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes.

*An example of beta bias= Research into fight or flight (uses male animals as they have less variation in hormones than females).

Evaluation of gender in psychology- Gender bias often goes unopposed 🙁

P- A major issue in the area of gender bias is that, although it is improving, there are still examples of gender bias that go unchallenged.

E- For example, the evolutionary theory of sexual selection portrays women as choosy and males as the ones who compete to be chosen. This is because it pays, in terms of ultimate reproductive success, for females to be more selective as the costs (to produce eggs) are high.

E- However, these views have recently been challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are equally as competitive as men, when economics allow.

L- This therefore highlights the importance of continually challenging earlier gender research, in order to reduce gender bias, to ensure that a valid picture of women is portrayed in contemporary studies.

Evaluation of gender in psychology- Reducing gender bias 🙂

*Contemporary psychologists have looked for ways. To reduce gender bias.

E- For example, some psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise both the value, and positive attributes of women. For example, Cornwell et al found that women are better at learning because they are more attentive.

E- This idea goes against the view that in any gender differences the male position must be better, and due to this, this may help to change people’s misconceptions about gender differences.

L- This helps to challenge gender stereotypes which is important in reducing gender bias.

Evaluation of gender in psychology- Implications of gender bias 🙁

P- Gender biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices.

E- For example, the medicalisation of PMS, which critics argue is a social construct that trivialises female aggression, suggesting it’s a sign of psychological instability, when males aggressive response is seen as rational.

L- Thus, leading to female behaviour being misunderstood, resulting in gender bias having damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of women.

Evaluation of gender in psychology- Sexism and bias within the research process 🙁

P- A lack of women appointed as senior researchers means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked.

E- Male researchers are more likely to have their research published, and studies which find evidence of gender differences are more likely than those that do not.

E- The methodology used may be biased also, the laboratory experiment may further disadvantage women, Eagly and Johnson found that studies in real settings found women and men were judged as more similar in styles of leadership than in lab settings.

L- This suggests that psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutionalism sexism that creates bias in theory and research.

Culture in psychology- Universality

*Universality is the belief that all humans are alike, so what is true for one person is true for everyone.

*When applied to culture, universality is the belief that some behaviours are the same for all cultures.

Culture in psychology- Culture bias

*Culture bias refers to a tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions.

*This distorts our judgement if other cultures.

Culture in psychology- Ethnocentrism

*Ethnocentrism is a type of cultural bias where people see the world only from their own cultural perspective and believe this perspective is both normal and correct. Thus, judging other cultures according to the norms/ values of one’s own culture.

*This belief in the superiority of one’s own culture may lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.

*Ethnocentrism emphasises the importance of the behaviour of one’s own culture.

Culture in psychology- Cultural relativism

*Cultural relativism is the idea/belief that it is essential to consider the cultural context when examining behaviour in that culture. We should appreciate that behaviour varies across cultures.

*There is no global ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, it varies across cultures, and it is importantly to consider the behaviour of the individual within their culture before making a judgement. Context is vital.

*An example of cultural relativism is social norms as what is acceptable in one culture may be unacceptable elsewhere.

Culture in psychology- The emic approach

*Investigates behaviour from within a culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.

Culture in psychology- The etic approach

*Investigates behaviour from outside of a culture and attempts to describe those behaviours that are universal. An etic approach is more likely to produce culturally- biased research.

Culture in psychology- Imposed etic

*Occurs when theories and concepts are assumed to be universal, despite coming from emic research within a single culture.

*E.g. Ainsworths strange situation research assumes an American- based model of classifying attachment is the norm. The use of this method on other cultures imposes etic assumptions that pp’s are all accustomed to this method.

Evaluation of culture bias- Consequences of culture bias 🙁

P- An issue with culturally biased research is that it can result in the formation of damaging stereotypes.

E- For example, before the Second World War, the US army used a culturally biased IQ test which showed that African- Americans were at the bottom of the scale with the lowest mental age.

E- The date from these tests had a negative effect on the attitudes held by Americans towards certain groups of people- black people. This led to enduring stereotypes concerning ethnic groups and their IQ.

L- This research is one example of the negative impact that culturally biased research can have.

Evaluation of Culture bias- Counter ethnocentrism with indigenous psychologies 🙂

P- One way to counter ethnocentrism in psychology is to encourage ‘indigenous psychologies’. This is the development of different groups of theories in different countries.

E- For example, Afrocentrism disputes the view that European values are universally appropriate descriptions of human behaviour that apply equally to Europeans and Non- Europeans alike.

E- It suggests that the European values and culture are irrelevant to the life and culture of people of African descent.

L- So, developing different groups of theories in different countries is one way in which psychologists can deal with the problems of ethnocentrism.

Evaluation of Culture bias- Reduction of cultural bias over time 🙂

P- One strength of psychological research today is that researchers are more culturally aware.

E- Often in the past, when psychologists had made reference to ‘culture’ they have done so within the context of the individualistic- collectivist distinction. However, in 1999, Takano and Osaka founf that 14 out of 15 studies that compared the USA and Japan found no evidence of the traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism.

E- Academics regularly travel, meet, discuss and exchange ideas, so there is a much greater exchange of information, which could reduce ethnocentrism in psychology, enabling an understanding of cultural relativism so that real differences are identified and valued.

L- This perhaps suggests that cultural bias in research is less of an issue than it once was.

Evaluation of Culture bias- Practical and theoretical applications are a major contribution to psychology 🙂

P- By identifying the possible issues of cultural bias, we have significantly increased our understanding of the impact of culture, cultural differences and culture specific behaviours.

E- This has major benefits, for example in the diagnosis of mental illness where culture specific behaviours, were often misdiagnosed as symptomatic of psychological abnormality.

E- In addition, this knowledge has also had practical advantages. Recent issues of diagnostic manuals such as the DSM now include a list of culture specific behaviours. This helps clinicians as it highlights the need to appreciate culture specific behaviours and greatly increase the validity and reliability of the diagnostic process.

L- Therefore, the increase in sensitivity to cultural bias and cultural differences has had major benefits, both within psychology and beyond.

Freewill and determinism- The debate

*The debate focuses on whether we are in control of what we do.

*It considers the extent to which behaviour is the result of controllable conscious decision and autonomous choice and the result of uncontrollable internal factors (e.g. biological, unconscious) or external factors (e.g. environmental).

Freewill and determinism- Free will

*Free will is the idea that humans are free to choose their own thoughts and actions, therefore having an active role in controlling their behaviour.

*It views humans as self-governing therefore they are not acting in response to any external or internal pressures.

*E.g. the humanistic approach (self actualisation).

Freewill and determinism- Determinism

*Determinism is that idea that human behaviours are outside our control. They are the result of causal factors, we have no child in our behaviour.

*Out behaviour is controlled by internal forces such as genes and hormones or external forces such as upbringing.

*Due to years of debate the understanding of ‘determinism’ has broadened to include hard and soft determinism.

E.g. Psychodynamic approach (Freud; Id, ego, superego).

Freewill and determinism- Hard determinism

*Takes the traditional view of determinism in saying that behaviour is the result if forces which are entirely out of the control of the individual and therefore Freewill is not possible.

*Since all behaviour has a cause, it should be possible to identify these causes. Therefore, hard determinism is highly compatible with the aims of science; to uncover causal laws.

Freewill and determinism- Soft determinism

*On the other hand, soft determism takes a less extreme view. Whilst acknowledging all human action has a cause, it suggests humans have the opportunity to exercise Freewill.

*It suggests that traits and behaviours are still governed by external and internal forces but an individual can exert some conscious mental control over the way they behave in some circumstances.

Freewill and determinism- Biological determinism

*Biological determism is a type of (hard) determism which suggests all human behaviour is controlled by internal forces and has its origins in aspects of our biology, e.g. genes and brain structure.

*It is proposed the individual has no control over these systems and therefore behaviour is the result if his these systems work and interact.

*E.g. The biological approach.

Freewill and determinism- Environmental determism

*Environmental determism is a type of (hard) determism which suggests all human behaviour is controlled by external influences e.g. experiences, upbringing and society, and has its origins in stimulus response learning.

*Many psychologists such as Skinner suggest hat Freewill is an illusion, and that behaviour is the result of specific physical and psychological reinforces and punishments which are continuously received throughout life.

*Although we act independently, our behaviour is actually the result of environmental events as well as our interactions with agents of socialisation, e.g. parents.

*E.g. Social learning theory.

Freewill and determinism- Psychic determism

*Psychic determism is the idea that human behaviour is governed by unconscious mental processes, instincts and drives, and is rooted in childhood experiences.

*Individuals may believe they are exercising Freewill but Freud suggested this is an illusion and what really motivates behaviour are these hidden unconscious processes.

*Psychic determism is similar to biological determism in that human thought and behaviour is determined by internal factors beyond the persons control, however these factors are psychic rather than biological.

*E.g. the psychodynamic approach.

Evaluation of Freewill and determinism- Evidence for mental illness being determined (For the debate of determinism)

P-Evidence from countless studies of psychopathology have suggested mental illness and its associated behaviour is determined and thus is outside the control of the individual.

E- For example, empirical evidence from research into OCD shows that the symptoms may be determined by the function of the orbitofrontal cortex, this is to say in terms of mental illness behaviour would appear to be determined.

E- However, critics of this hard determism approach have proposed that with certain mental illnesses like depression, anxiety and OCD, individuals can choose to take some conscious mental control over their thoughts and behaviours to alleviate some of the symptoms and use of treatments.

L- Thus suggesting a soft deterministic view is a better argument.

Evaluation of Freewill and determinism- Legal implications for a deterministic argument (For/ Against the debate of determinism)

P- Determinism is incompatible with the notion of legal responsibility. It is argued criminals are personally and morally responsible for their own behaviour.

E- For example, when Stephen Moberly killed a shop manager his claim of ‘Born to kill’ was rejected and he was sentenced to death. He claimed that his long family history of violence was evidence that through his biology he was destined to commit crime. Such deterministic positions are seen as undesirable as it would allow individuals to excuse their behaviour.

E- Nevertheless in rare cases, the deterministic argument has led to more favourable treatment; Abdelmalek Bayout had his sentence for murder reduced when the judge learnt he had a mutated gene linked to aggression.

L- Therefore, suggesting in some cases biological and/or environmental determism can be used as legal arguments.

Evaluation of Freewill and determinism- Much more compelling evidence for determism than Freewill (For the debate of determinism)

P- Both Libert and Chun Siong Soon found evidence that brain activity determines the outcome of simple choices.

E- The research found pp’s brain activity indicated whether to use the left or right hand to press a button up to 10 seconds before the individual reported being aware of consciously making a decision.

E- This is compelling evidence that our free choices are actually predetermined before we are even consciously aware we have made a decision.

L- This supports the idea that the concept of Freewill is an illusion, with thoughts and behaviours being predetermined by factors outside of our control.

Evaluation of Freewill and determinism- Freewill leads to better mental health (Against the debate of determinism)

P- Taking a Freewill perspective can be beneficial as it can lead to better mental health.

E- This is supported by research into locusts of control, serval studies have shown that those who exhibit an internal locus of control are more mentally healthy.

E- For example, Robert’s demonstrated adolescents who have an internal locus of control were less vulnerable to becoming depressed whereas those with a strong belief in determinism, who felt they had no control in their lives were are significant risk.

L- This suggests that even if Freewill is an illusion as suggested by some determinists, the belief that we have Freewill leads to a positive impact on people’s lives.

The nature- nurture debate

*The nature- nurture debate focuses on the relative importance of how much of our behaviour is innate and how much is acquired.

*It considers the contributions of heritability (e.g. innate influences) and environmental factors (e.g. parental influences and societal experience).

The nature- nurture debate- Nature

*Nature is the idea that human behaviour is the result of innate influences and that heredity is more influential.

*The nature viewpoint suggests that through the process of heredity, characteristics and traits are genetically transmitted from one generation to the next.

*The nature side of the debate is founded in the nativist theory that knowledge/ abilities are innate.

The nature- nurture debate- Nurture

*The nurture viewpoint proposes that human behaviour is the result of environmental influences.

*The nurture side of the debate is founded in empiricist theory and believes that knowledge comes from learning and experience.

*Locke believes humans are born ‘tabula rasa’ which means “blank slate”, thus suggesting all behaviours are the result of physical, mental and social interactions with the world.

The nature- nurture debate- The interactionist approach

*The interactionist approach in relation to the nature-nurture debate suggests that both genetics and environment contribute to behaviour.

*It suggests it is more important to study how these factors affect each other, rather than how much of an Individualds behaviour is a result of nature or nurture.

*For example, the diathesis stress model, which proposes behaviour is the result if a biological vulnerability triggered by an environmental stressor, is very relevant in the field of psychopathology. Schizophrenia results from an interaction between diathesis, for example a faulty genetic abnormality, and a stress factor such as, dysfunctional family.

Evaluation of the nature- nurture debate- Research evidence to support the important of nature 🙂

P- Research evidence from family, twin and adoption studies show that the closer the relatedness of two people, the more likely it is that they will show the same behaviours.

E- For example, the risk of being diagnosed with schizophrenia is approximately 1% of the general population. However, Gottsman and Shields analysed 40 family studies and the risk increases to 46% for those with two parents who have schizophrenia.

E- Also, Joseph founf an average concordance rate of 40% for MZ twins and 7% for DZ twins for schizophrenia.

L- This highlights a significant genetic component and hence support for the nature side of the debate.

Evaluation of the nature- nurture debate- Methodological issues concerned with separating nature from nurture 🙁

P- However, a major issue with the nature nurture debate is that it is practically and theoretically impossible to separate the influence of genes from the environment, especially in twin studies.

E- Furham argued this is because as MZ twins are the same sex and usually look alike; thus means their parents and society in general tends to treat them mire similarly than DZ twins.

E- DZ twins are more likely to experience different reinforcers and therefore having unique experiences.

L- These issues increase the difficulty in determining the importance of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) because it means any ‘genetically’ explained differences in concordance rates can be accounted for by environmental influences.

Evaluation of the nature- nurture debate- Research evidence that nurture affects nature 🙂

P- Research has found evidence to show that nurture can affect nature.

E- Maguire et al found evidence for physical changes in the brains of humans (nature) due to environmental influence (nurture).

E- He found that London taxi drivers had significantly bigger hippocampi (associated with spatial awareness) than controls. It is argued that taxi drivers are not born this way but their brain responded to the increased use of this process.

L- This further supports the best way to understand human behaviour is to account for nature, nurture and the interaction between the two.

Evaluation of the nature- nurture debate- Both nature and nurture are deterministic viewpoints 🙁

P- Nature and nurture are both hard deterministic viewpoints.

E- Regardless of whether behaviour is a product of the environment or biology, the debate excludes the motion of Freewill. This raises the question of whether a person is held legally responsible for a crime they have committed.

E- Research into mental health including addiction and disorders, have demonstrated a significant link between good mental functioning, self-belief and freewill.

L- This therefore suggests understanding human behaviour goes far beyond the nature-nurture debate.

Evaluation of the interactionist approach- Research support for the interactionist approach 🙂

P- A strength of adopting an interactionist approach (rather than nature or nurture) as an explanation of human behaviour is that there is research support for it.

E- For example, Tienari et al investigated the combination of genetic vulnerability (diathesis factor) and parental-child rearing style (stress factor) in schizophrenia. They compared the rates of schizophrenia of children adopted between 1960-79 from 19,000 Finnish mothers with schizophrenia (high risk) to a control group of adoptees without a mother with schizophrenia (low risk).

E- The children were then followed up and their adoptive parents were assessed for child-rearing style. High levels of parental criticism and conflict with low levels of empathy was implicated in the development of schizophrenia, but only for the children with a high genetic risk.

L- This supports the importance of using an interactionist approach to explaining human behaviour, in this case of schizophrenia, as it suggests that the contribution of both a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and family dysfunction (stress) are important in the development of schizophrenia.

Evaluation of the interactionist approach- Practical application of adopting an interactionist approach 🙂

P- Practical application of the interactionist approach is that in combining both nature and nurture, this produces more effective therapies for a variety of psychological disorders.

E- For example, there is research support for the use of eclectic therapy in the treatment of schizophrenia.

E- Guo et al reported that patients in the early stages of schizophrenia who receive a combination of antipsychotic medication and psychological therapy have improved insight, quality of life and social functioning and are therefore less likely to discontinue treatment or relapse than those taking antipsychotic medication alone, illustrating the value and effectiveness of combining treatments in patients with schizophrenia.

L- This finding demonstrates the effectiveness of taking an interactionist approach to treatments.

Holistic and reductionism

*The holism and reductionism debate focuses on whether it is more beneficial to look at the whole person or break down complex behaviours into simpler components.

*Holistic explanations suggest that human behaviour is best understood as an integrated experience, and we should consider the complex interactions of different factors, whereas reductionist explanations suggest that human behaviour is best understood by focusing on the smallest, simplest parts involved.

Holistic and reductionism- Holism

*Holism proposes that human behaviour should be viewed as the product of different influences, which all interact.

*Trying to understand human behaviour by just study in one influence means that complex behaviour can be misunderstood. So, the idea of holism is that to fully understand human behaviour the whole person must be studied.

*Examples of approaches in psychology which are more holistic, include humanistic psychology which investigates many aspects of the individuals as well as the interactions between people.

Holistic and reductionism- Reductionism

*Reductionism involves breaking human behaviour down into more simple components.

*It implies that this process is desirable because complex phenomena are best understood in simpler levels of explanation.

*Psychologists are drawn to reductionist explanations and methods of research as reductionism is a powerful research tool, which has led to major discoveries for example, treatments for psychological disorders.

Holism and reductionism- Biological reductionism

*Biological reductionism is the view that all behaviour can be explained at a lower biological level, in terms of the actions of genes, neurotransmitters, brain structure, and hormones.

*This is the assumption of the biological approach.

Holism and reductionism- Environmental reductionism

*Environmental reductionism is the view that all behaviour can be explained in terms of simple stimulus- response links, which involves learning the relationship between a behaviour and a corresponding event in the environment.

*This is the assumption of the behaviourist approach.

Holism and reductionism- What is the Levels of explanation

*Levels of explanation refers to the belief that behaviour can be explained at different levels ranging from lover level (reductionist) explanations which focus on basic components or units to higher level (holistic) explanations which consider multiple variables.

*Rose suggested that the levels of explanations in psychology, from the lowest (most scientific) to the highest, (least scientific).

Holism and reductionism- What are each level of the levels of explanation?

*Highest (most holistic level)- Includes social and cultural explanations, where behaviour relates to the impact of social groups and norms (e.g. social psychology, the least scientific).

*The middle level- Includes psychological explanations which focus on behaviour and its underlying thoughts (e.g. cognitive psychology and social learning theory).

*Lower (most reductionist level) involves biological explanations, where all behaviour can be explained in terms of genes, brain structure and neurochemicals. (Biological, most scientific).

Evaluation of Holism and Reductionism- Reductionism provides a basis for scientific research 🙂

P- A strength of reductionist approaches is that most psychologists are drawn to them as they often form the basis of scientific research.

E- In order to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break target behaviours down into fundamental parts. This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations (behavioural categories) in a way that is meaningful and reliable.

E- Whereas, a problem with holism is that it is difficult to test integrated theories as you cannot isolate the variables- this means it is hard to establish cause and effect.

L- Therefore, reductionism gives psychology greater credibility, placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences.

Evaluation of Holism and Reductionism- Reductionism ignores the complexity of human behaviour 🙁

P- A limitation of reductionist approaches is that they have been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena. This can lead errors of understanding as it ignores the complexity of human behaviour.

E- For example, schizophrenia is often treated with anti-psychotic medication in the belief that the condition consists of nothing more than unbalanced neurochemicals. This is problematic because even though anti-psychotic medications can reduce the symptoms in many individuals, the cause of the condition has not been addressed.

E- For example, the schizophrenia may be due to high levels of expressed emotions or double blind communication. Furthermore, the success rates of anti-psychotic medication are so variable, that the purely biological understanding seems inadequate.

L- This suggests that we must be careful in that, reductionist explanations may distract us from a more appropriate level of explanation. Reductionist explanations can only ever form part of an explanation.

Evaluation of Holism and Reductionism- Holistic explanations provide a more complex understanding of human behaviour

P- One strength of holism is that, often there are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood by purely examining the individual group members.

E- For instance, Zimbardos research into the effects of conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison study, could not be understood by studying pp’s as individuals.

E- It was the interactionist between people and the behaviour of the group that was important.

L- This shows that holistic explanations provide a more complete and global understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches.

Evaluation of Holism and Reductionism- Holistic approaches do not lend themselves to rigorous scientific testing

P- A limitation of holistic explanations in psychology is that they can become vague and speculative as they become more complex, and so they do not lend themselves to rigorous scientific testing.

E- For example, holistic explanations that combine many different approaches, present researchers with a practical dilemma.

E- If we accept that many factors contribute to schizophrenia, for example; family dysfunction, imbalance in levels of dopamine and dysfunctional thinking, it becomes difficult to establish which is most influential and which one to use, as a basis for therapy.

L- This suggests when it comes to finding solutions for real- world problems, lower level (reductionist) explanations may be more appropriate.