3b: Learning

learning

The process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

associative larning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or as a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

cognative learning

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

classical conditioning

A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s famous experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

neutral conditioning

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditioned response

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as when food is in the mouth)

conditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

conditioned response

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

higher order conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.

acqusition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.)

exctinction

In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)

stimulus generalization

In classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

stimulus discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus

counter conditioning

Counseling technique used to help people deal with fears, where subjects are presented with a feared stimulus, but in a relaxed environment, until extinction occurs

one trial conditioning

A type of learning where a single pairing of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus is enough to create a conditioned response, meaning an organism learns a new behavior after just one exposure. Often seen in situations with strong survival implications like taste aversion.

biological preparedness

A predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior becomes more likely to occur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to occur if followed by a punisher

the law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely

operant chamber

In operant conditioning research, an enclosed device (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting desirable stimuli, such as food, after a response, in order to strengthen the response. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing undesirable stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

secondary reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a conditioned reinforcer

reinfocement generalization

In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation are applied in other, similar situations

reinfocement discrimination

The ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced

positive punishment

An event that administers an aversive, or unpleasant, stimulus as a way of decreasing the behavior that it follows

negative punishment

The withdrawal of a rewarding stimulus, as a way of decreasing the behavior that it follows

shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

instinctive drift

The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

partail reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after specified number of responses

variable ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

social learning theoru

The perspective in psychology that focuses on how we learn by observing and imitating others

modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

vicarious conditioning

Learning that occurs by watching how others’ behaviors are reinforced or punished

insight leasrning

Solving problems through sudden cognition, without any association, consequence, or model being presented; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

latent learning

Solving problems through sudden cognition, without any association, consequence, or model being presented; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment