Criminology unit 2- individualistic theories of crime

Describe Bandura’s social learning theory.

This theory suggests that behaviour linked to crime e.g. aggressiveness is observed through an individuals’ role models and then imitated based on the observed outcome. We choose our role models based kn who we identify with e.g. parents, peers, siblings, celebrities. An offender will imitate criminal behaviour if they see their role models committing a crime. This behaviour can either be reinforced through direct reinforcement e.g. having status for being violent or through vicarious reinforcement e.g. seeing others earn money for selling drugs. The Bobo doll study supports these theories as it found that exposure to a model behaving aggressively results in observational learning and aggressive behaviour meaning individuals are then predisposed to committing violent crimes.

What are the strengths of social learning theory?

• this theory contains supporting research from the bobo doll study. The study showed that a model did have an effect on the child’s behaviour. For example, the children who observed an aggressive model then imitated that behaviour and also behaved aggressively but children who were no exposed to an aggressive model did not display aggressive behaviour. This means we can establish that the role model impacted the child”s behaviour

• Also supported by Osborn and West (1979) who studied sons of criminal and non criminal fathers. When a father held a criminal conviction 40% of their sons also had a conviction by age 18 compared to 13% of a control group. These findings show that individuals may imitate the criminal behaviour of their parents.

• This theory is less deterministic than other theories. For example, it considers the fact that we choose what behaviour to imitate and that we learn from the experience of others meaning it accounts for cognitive factors.

What are the weaknesses of social learning theory?

• this theory is based on lab experiments. These are set in artificial environments meaning the findings may lack ecological validity and can’t generalise to real life

• The experiment involves ethical issues due to exposing children to aggression in the knowledge that they may imitate it. This raises concerns about protecting children from psychological and physical harm.

• Bandura makes little reference to biological factors that may be involved in criminal behaviour. The bobo doll study found that boys were overall more aggressive than girls. Therefore it might be preferred to suggest that testosterone causes aggressive behaviour.

Explain psychodynamic theories of criminality.

Freud identified a tripartite structure of personality consisting of the Id (pleasure principle) ego (reality principle) and the superego (morality principle). Freud believed children are born as bundles of id and the other structures develop throughout early childhood experiences. How well they develop depends on how stable the home environment is which will affect future life. Blackburn makes the connection between this theory and criminality stating that inadequate functioning of the id or superego can cause criminality. For example, if a child does not make the transition from id to superego due to an unstable home environment then the mind will become uncontrollable and criminality takes place. He also prooosed three types of inadequate superego; weak superego (absence of same-sex parent means the child has no firm idea of right or wrong so will commit crime) deviant superego (same-sex parent is immoral so the child internalises a deviant moral code) and an over harsh superego (superego is demanding of guilt so child has an unconscious desire to be punished and so commits crime)

What are the strengths of psychodynamic theory?

• Supporting research from bowlby who found that 39% of juvenile delinquents had been completely separated from their mother for at least 6 months in the first 5 years of their life compared to 5% of the control group. This supports freud’s stance on children needing a stable home environment to progress to the ego.

• The id, superego and ego relate to different parts of the brain and their functions and development. The limbic system in the brains emotion centre is rather like the id. The pre frontal cortex is responsible for rational decision making just like the ego.

What are the weaknesses of psychodynamic theories?

• these theories are no longer accredited by psychologists due to the difficulty of testing concepts such as the unconscious mind which it’s existence is impossible to prove. This means the theory is unfalsifiable.

• These theories are very unscientific and lack objectivity. They are subjective meaning that different individuals may draw different conclusions.

• There is lack of quantitative data from freuds case studies. He also knew his patients so could not be objective. He also psychoanalysed himself studying his own dreams and childhood memories.

• Many people without a same sex parent with whom they can identify still grow up to be perfectly law abiding therefore this theory cannot explain offending behaviour in everyone.

Explain eysenck’s theory of criminality.

Eysenck based his theory on questionnaires on 700 soldiers being treated for neurotic illness. He concluded that their answers suggested different personality traits. Therefore he proposed that certain personalities are more likely to commit crimes because they crave excitement and are slow to learn that crime has negative consequences. Eysenck identified two dimensions of personality extroversion and introversion(E,I) and neuroticism and stability (N,S). He later added psychoticism to the dimensions of personality. People who have extrovert, neurotic and psychotic personalities are more likely to offend because they struggle to learn to control immature impulses. Criminals are more likely to be impulsive thrill seeking individuals who are unable to accept/ understand rules of society.

What are the strengths of eysencks theory of criminality?

• this theory has real world applications. If this theory is correct and criminal tendencies are detectable in childhood then it may be possible to intervene at an early age and prevent the development of criminality for example, interventions based on parenting or early treatment.

• Eysenck predicts that high E, N and P scores lead to criminality which is supported by his research of 700 soldiers. He predicted the most traumatised soldiers would score high on neurotic which they did.

• Eysencks theory is scientific and the questionnaire used to measure personality is considered to be reliable.

What are the weaknesses of eysencks theory of criminality?

• suggesting a single personality type for criminals is overly simplistic e.g. technological crime or white collar crime is often committed by introverts and stable people

• Evidence for this theory is only correlational. It doesn’t prove that personality causes criminality. It could be the other way around being in prison might cause people to be neurotic

• Research from this theory relies on self report measures about a persons view of their personality. This can result in social desirability bias as people will give false answers meaning they are not valid

Describe the policy of psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis, based on Freuds psychodynamic theory, is a treatment for criminal behaviour which aims to access the unconscious repressed thoughts which are believed to have led to criminal activity. The assumptions are that any psychological problems caused during development or repressed trauma are embedded in the unconscious mind. The treatment aims to bring repressed thoughts to consciousness where they can be dealt with. Some methods include talking therapy/free association, dream analysis or ink blot tests

What are the strengths of the policy of psychoanalysis?

• a study in 2010 concluded that it works as well as or is at least equivalent to other psychotherapy treatments such as cbt

What are the weaknesses of psychoanalysis?

• psychoanalysis doesn’t seem very effective. Eysenck found that only 44% of psychoanalysis patients treated for neurosis showed improvements as opposed to 72% of patients treated by hospitals or GPs. If this doesn’t work for neurosis it seems very unliekly to work for criminals

• This policy gives analysts the power to define what is normal or abnormal. For example, Freud regarded homosexuality as abnormal. Imposing their definitions in this way can give rise to abuse.

• Psychoanalysis is costly and time consuming so it has never been used on a large scale for treating criminals.

• Criticism comes from Blackburn (1995) who points out that there are very few positive evaluations of classics psychoanalysis as a treatment

• This therapy is probably least favoured in contemporary approaches to working with offenders. It is very time consuming and is unlikely to provide quick answers.

• The nature of this treatment creates a power imbalance between therapist and client which raises ethical issues

• Patient could rediscover very painful memories that were deliberately repressed

Describe the policy of behaviour modification (token economy).

This policy is based on operant learning theories that consequences of a response determine the probability of it being repeated. Behaviour modification simply focuses on trying to put an end to undesirable behaviours and promote desirable ones by punishing criminal behaviour in order to weaken the thought process leading to the illegal behaviour. For example the token economy system. This is usually used in prisons where a list of desirable behaviours is drawn up e.g. obeying the rules and when the offender behaves in this desired way they earn a token. The tokens can then be exchanged for privileges like TV, making phone calls to family, own clothes. If they misbehave the privileges are taken away. In this way good behaviour becomes more likely and undesirable behaviour becomes less likely

What are the strengths of behaviour modification/token economy?

• Fo and O Donnell tried operant learning techniques on young offenders and found it improved the behaviour of serious offenders but had a mixed impact on those who committed less serious offences.

• Token economies make prisoners more manageable whilst in prison and can keep prison a calmer environment

• Account for individual differences. Can use different reinforcement schedules and rewards that are specific to the individual.

What are the weaknesses of behaviour modification/ token economy?

• some studies show an improvement but once the reinforcement stops e.g. leaving prison this tends to disappear suggesting only a short term impact

• Some prisons in the USA can be seen to be abusing prisoners human rights through withdrawing food and drink as rewards. Critics argue that is a human right and not a privilege to be earned.

• Success rate is questionable. May be due to relationship between staff and prisoner, extra attention or just having clear rules