CH 12: Sexual Offending

Why is person-first language preferred over terms like “sex offender”?

Because it acknowledges individuals as more than their offence history, avoids implying a homogeneous or permanently dangerous group, and reflects that most people who commit sexual offences do not specialize or reoffend.

What is a major problem with the term “sex offender”?

It implies a permanent, unchangeable identity and inaccurately suggests all sexual offenders are similar.

How does DSM-5-TR define a paraphilia?

An intense, persistent sexual interest other than sexual interest in genital stimulation or preparatory fondling with mature, consenting adult partners.

List common paraphilias.

Pedophilia, sexual masochism, sexual sadism, exhibitionism, voyeurism, frotteurism, fetishism, among others.

Do all paraphilias involve illegal behaviour?

No. Some (e.g., fetishism, sexual masochism) may be non-criminal unless acted on with nonconsenting persons.

What is pedophilia?

A chronophilia involving sexual attraction to prepubescent children (before puberty).

What is the estimated prevalence of pedophilia in the general population?

About 1%.

What percentage of pedophilic individuals are exclusively pedophilic?

40–60%.

Define exclusive vs. non-exclusive pedophilia.

• Exclusive: Only sexually attracted to children.

• Non-exclusive: Also sexually attracted to adults.

What is the median self-reported age of onset for pedophilia?

Age 15.

What is Criterion A for pedophilic disorder?

≥6 months of recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviours involving prepubescent children (age ≤13).

What is Criterion B for pedophilic disorder?

The person has acted on the urges or the urges cause distress or interpersonal difficulty.

What is Criterion C for pedophilic disorder?

The individual is ≥16 years old and ≥5 years older than the child.

Does viewing child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) count as “acting on urges” under the DSM-5-TR?

No. DSM-5-TR now specifies only in-person sexual interaction.

Why is caution advised when diagnosing adolescents with pedophilia?

Many are still developing; diagnosis should be reserved for sustained, focused, intense sexual arousal to prepubescent children.

Are all individuals who commit sexual offences against children pedophilic?

No—only about half.

Do all people with pedophilia commit sexual offences?

No.

What is sexual sadism?

A paraphilia involving intense sexual arousal from the physical or psychological suffering of another person.

How often does sexual sadism appear in sexually motivated homicides?

In about one third.

What are the DSM-5-TR criteria for Sexual Sadism Disorder?

• A: ≥6 months of recurrent intense arousal from another’s suffering.

• B: Person has acted on urges with a nonconsenting person or experiences distress/impairment.

Does inflicting pain during an assault automatically mean someone is sexually sadistic?

No—instrumental pain (to control the victim) doesn’t qualify unless it is sexually pleasurable to the person.

Are paraphilias more common in males or females? Why?

Males. Possibly due to higher sexual drive, lower inhibition, higher novelty-seeking, and lower disgust sensitivity.

How much have CSEM offences increased in Canada (2010–2017)?

By 288%.

What proportion of victims never disclose their childhood sexual abuse to anyone?

16% of women and 35% of men.

What % of Canadians report lifetime sexual assault since age 15?

• 3 in 10 women

• 1 in 10 men

What % had childhood sexual abuse?

• 1 in 10 women

• 1 in 20 men

Which age group is at highest risk for sexual violence (self-report)?

Women aged 25–34.

For police-reported offences, who is most commonly targeted?

Girls aged 12–17.

What factors raise the likelihood of experiencing sexual violence?

Indigenous identity, disability, non-heterosexual identity, childhood maltreatment.

What % of sexual offences in Canada are committed by males?

• 95% (youth cases)

• 96.5% (adult cases)

Why are rates of female offending higher in self-reports than police reports?

Men are more likely to report female perpetrators; police data underdetect female offending.

Do women usually offend together with men?

No. Only 40% of female and 10% of male offenders have co-offenders.

Who do female offenders tend to target?

Younger children and relatives; more males unless co-offending.

Who is more likely to commit sexual offences against children—teens or adults?

Teenagers.

Do most offenders know their victim?

Yes—most are family, acquaintances, or friends.

Are group sexual offences common?

No—rare, though more common among adolescents.

What distinguishes multiple-perpetrator offences?

• Offenders ~22 years old

• More likely to occur outdoors

• More likely to involve weapons

• Victim more often a stranger

• Higher likelihood of substance use

Do sexual offenders usually have long sexual criminal histories?

No—often they do not.

What type of reoffending is more common: sexual or nonsexual?

Nonsexual reoffending.

Are CSEM-only offenders likely to escalate to contact offences?

Very rarely.

• About 0.3% (5-year follow-up) committed a new contact offence.

Are victims generally resilient?

Many are, but adverse outcomes are common.

List adverse outcomes associated with sexual assault.

• Physical: hypertension, obesity, chronic pain

• Sexual: STI risk, risky sexual behaviour

• Mental health: self-harm, psychiatric disorders

• Self-regulation: impulsivity, substance misuse

• Interpersonal: relationship difficulties, dissatisfaction

• Economic: lower earnings

Do impacts differ based on the gender of the offender?

No—harm occurs regardless of whether the perpetrator is male or female.

What often worsens long-term outcomes after child sexual abuse?

Co-occurring maltreatment (physical, emotional, neglect). More types = worse outcomes.

According to major theories, what are the three broad categories of factors contributing to sexual offending?

1. Motivational factors – e.g., atypical sexual interest, sexual self-regulation issues

2. Facilitation factors – e.g., antisocial tendencies, cognitions tolerant of sexual offending

3. Situational/state disinhibition factors – e.g., access to children, intoxication, arousal

What is the main consensus across theories of sexual offending?

Sexual offending is multifactorial, with different combinations of causes underlying different offence types.

What do theorists disagree about regarding core causes?

• Some believe antisociality is the core ingredient of sexual offending.

• Others believe sexual domain factors (arousal, coping, self-regulation) are central.

In Seto’s model, what are motivational factors?

Internal sexual interests or drives, such as paraphilia, hypersexuality, or high mating effort.

In Seto’s model, what are facilitation factors, and how are trait and state factors different?

• Facilitation factors increase likelihood of acting on motivations.

• Trait factors: stable (e.g., antisocial traits, poor self-regulation).

• State factors: fluctuating (e.g., intoxication, anger).

What role do situational factors play in Seto’s model?

They provide the opportunity for offending (e.g., access to victims).

According to Seto, what combination is required for sexual offending to occur?

Both motivational and facilitation factors must be present; situational factors allow the behaviour.

What are limitations of Seto’s model?

• Research tests mostly pedophilia; other paraphilias less studied.

• Not applied to adolescent or female offenders.

What is the basic evolutionary argument behind some sexual offending?

Traits once associated with increased reproductive success may influence modern behaviours, including coercive strategies.

What are the three groups of men who commit sexual offences against adults according to Lalumière et al.?

1. Young men

2. Competitively disadvantaged men

3. Psychopathic men

Why do young men have higher sexual offending rates under evolutionary theory?

They have low resources and status, so they may use risk-taking or coercion to gain mating opportunities.

Why are competitively disadvantaged men considered life-course persistent?

Early neurodevelopmental problems (e.g., low IQ) impair ability to gain status prosocially.

How do psychopathic men differ in evolutionary strategy?

They choose high mating effort over parental investment, using coercion as a deliberate strategy.

What are major criticisms of evolutionary theories of sexual offending?

Hard to test empirically; often oversimplified.

What are beliefs tolerant of sexual offending, and what role do they play?

Attitudes that justify or minimize sexual offending; they predict sexual recidivism and are targeted in treatment.

Why is research on cognitive distortions inconsistent?

Definitions vary widely—from simple evaluations to complex rationalizations.

What is one of the strongest and most consistent predictors of sexual offending?

Atypical sexual interests (e.g., pedophilia).

Does having a pedophilic interest guarantee offending?

No—at least half of people with pedophilic interests never offend.

Does sexual interest in coercive sex reliably predict sexual recidivism?

No, evidence is mixed and assessment methods matter.

How is emotional congruence with children defined?

Emotional identification or affiliation with children over adults, often seeking relationships with children.

Emotional congruence with children predicts sexual offending against which group?

Contact offences against unrelated children.

What is sexual preoccupation?

High sexual drive and/or compulsive sexual behaviour, including distress or perceived loss of control.

How is sexual preoccupation related to sexual recidivism?

Higher sexual preoccupation = higher risk of sexual reoffending.

What general offending risk factors strongly predict sexual offending as well?

Antisociality, impulsivity, and poor self-regulation.

How do psychopathy and atypical sexual interest interact?

Together they sharply increase risk of sexual recidivism compared to either alone.

Does general pornography use predict sexual aggression?

No. Large meta-analysis found no meaningful association.

What about violent pornography?

Small and inconsistent association; cannot determine causality.

Is there clear evidence that child sex dolls increase sexual offending risk?

No—findings are mixed, inconclusive, and research is emerging.

What is the abused-abuser hypothesis?

The idea that childhood sexual abuse increases likelihood of later sexual offending.

Do people who commit sexual offences have higher rates of childhood sexual abuse?

Yes—higher than both non-sexual offenders and non-offenders.

What is a psychosexual evaluation used for?

To evaluate individuals with sexual offences and inform case management strategies (treatment programs, supervision requirements), including risk factors, sexual history, criminogenic needs, and risk to reoffend.

What are the four main components of most psychosexual evaluations?

1. File review (criminal/psychiatric records)

2. Clinical interview (including sexual history, sometimes collateral interviews)

3. Risk assessment tools

4. Testing of criminogenic needs (e.g., PPG, self-report tools)

What domains are typically covered during the clinical interview?

Family of origin, childhood, education, employment, romantic/social relationships, recreation, substance use, physical and mental health, criminal history, sexual history.

What does the final psychosexual evaluation report typically include?

Summary of information, diagnoses, risk instrument scores, risk-management needs, treatment recommendations.

What is the primary concern when using risk assessment tools for sexual offending?

Their accuracy (i.e., discrimination between recidivists and non-recidivists).

What does “discrimination” mean in risk assessment?

The tool’s ability to distinguish between individuals who will reoffend vs. those who will not.

What type of tool is the Static-99R?

An empirical actuarial instrument assessing static (unchangeable) risk factors for sexual recidivism.

Who is the Static-99R intended for?

Men with sexual offences.

List key types of risk factors included in Static-99R.

• Young age

• No long-term cohabitation

• Prior sexual offences

• Prior sentencing dates

• Non-sexual violent offences

• Non-contact sexual offences

• Male victims

• Unrelated victims

• Stranger victims

What is the score range for Static-99R, and what does a higher score mean?

0–12; higher scores = greater sexual recidivism risk.

What type of risk factors does STABLE-2007 assess?

Stable dynamic risk factors.

What kinds of factors are included?

Social influences, capacity for stable relationships, emotional identification with children, hostility toward women, loneliness, impulsivity, problem-solving deficits, negative emotionality, sex drive, sexual preoccupation, coping with sex, atypical preferences, cooperation with supervision.

How does STABLE-2007 relate to Static-99R?

Scores can be combined; STABLE-2007 adds incremental predictive value.

What does VRS-SO (Violence Risk Scale – Sexual Offending Version) measure?

Static & dynamic risk factors, treatment targets, and change over time.

What is a unique advantage of VRS-SO?

It measures change in dynamic factors pre- and post-treatment.

What is the predictive validity of VRS-SO?

It has the highest discrimination among available tools.

What is PPG and what does it measure?

Penile plethysmography; physiological arousal to sexual stimuli.

What does increased arousal to atypical vs. typical stimuli suggest?

Atypical sexual interests (e.g., child abuse narratives).

What is viewing-time assessment?

Measuring how long individuals look at images of children/adults, often without them knowing their viewing time is being recorded.

What is SSPI-2 used for?

Screening for pedophilic interest using offence history indicators.

What is a key limitation across viewing-time, self-report, and PPG?

They may not measure the same construct, raising questions about interchangeability.

What should guide the choice of assessment tools?

• Evidence base

• Population (e.g., adults vs. youth, men vs. women)

• Outcome of interest (sexual vs. general recidivism)

• Practical resources and cost

Why might different tools place the same person into different risk categories?

• Different risk factors assessed

• Different weighting of factors

• Different scoring cutoffs (sometimes arbitrary)

What are community notification laws?

Informing the public when a person convicted of sexual offences moves into a community.

What are sexual offending registries?

Systems requiring convicted individuals to register with police, update their address, and check in periodically.

Does research show that registries and community notification reduce recidivism?

No—meta-analyses show no significant reduction.