Unit 0 - 2

3-Stage Model of Memory

A model describing memory as encoding, storage, and retrieval

Encoding

The process of forming a memory code

Storage

Maintaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

Recovering information from memory stores

Levels of Processing

Theory stating that deeper processing leads to better memory

Explicit Memory

Intentional recollection of information

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires conscious effort

Hippocampus (Explicit Memory)

Brain structure involved in forming explicit memories

Implicit Memory

Remembering information without conscious awareness

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of information

Implicit Memory Resistance

Implicit memory is largely unaffected by amnesia, age, or drugs

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall episodic memories from before ages 2-4

Cause of Infantile Amnesia

Hippocampus and limbic system are not fully developed

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall information from before brain injury

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories due to hippocampal damage

Semantic Memory

General factual knowledge

Episodic Memory

Memory of specific personal events that shape identity

Procedural Memory

Memory of actions and skills (muscle memory)

Forgetting

Often occurs due to failure to retrieve memories

Poor Retrieval Cues

Inadequate reminders that trigger memory recall

Context-Dependent Memory

Recall improves when in the same environment as encoding

State-Dependent Memory

Recall improves when in the same mental or physical state

Mood-Congruent Memory

Recall is biased toward memories matching current mood

Memory Distortions

Changes in memory caused by internal or external factors

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal life history

Superior Autobiographical Memory (SAM)

Exceptionally detailed autobiographical memory

Cultural Context (Problem Solving)

Culture influences how people approach problems

Intelligence (Culture-Specific)

Intelligence tests may reflect cultural values

Galton's Hereditary Genius

Intelligence is inherited and runs in families

Stanford-Binet Test

One of the first standardized intelligence tests

Reliability

Consistency of a psychological test

Test-Retest Reliability

Consistency of scores over time

Split-Half Reliability

Consistency between two halves of a test

Validity

Ability of a test to measure what it claims to measure

Predictive Validity

How well a test predicts future performance

Construct Validity

How well a test measures a theoretical concept

Stereotype Threat

Anxiety that negatively affects performance due to stereotypes

Stereotype Lift

Improved performance when negatively stereotyped groups are absent

Convergent Thinking

Narrow thinking focused on one correct answer

Divergent Thinking

Broad thinking that generates multiple solutions

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to make decisions

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on recent or memorable examples

Representative Heuristic

Judging based on stereotypes or prototypes

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Proposes eight distinct types of intelligence

Musical Intelligence

Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, and sound

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Ability to use the body skillfully

Interpersonal Intelligence

Ability to understand others

Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence

Ability to use language effectively

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Ability to reason and work with numbers

Naturalistic Intelligence

Ability to recognize patterns in nature

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Ability to understand oneself

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

Ability to visualize and manipulate objects

IQ Formula

IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100

IQ Distribution

IQ scores follow a bell curve with a standard deviation of 15

Fluid Intelligence

Reasoning ability, memory capacity, and processing speed

Crystallized Intelligence

Ability to use learned knowledge and experience

Reaction Range

Genetic limits within which environment influences intelligence

Flynn Effect

Increase in average IQ scores over generations

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Focuses on unconscious motives and early childhood

Psychodynamic Perspective

Modern version of psychoanalysis

Behaviorist Perspective

Studies observable behavior and learning

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on thinking, perception, and memory

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization

Sociocultural Perspective

Behavior shaped by culture and environment

Biological Perspective

Focuses on genetics, brain, and hormones

Evolutionary Perspective

Behavior shaped by natural selection

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Behavior influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate over genetics versus environment

Experiment

Research method used to determine cause-and-effect

Hypothesis

Testable and falsifiable prediction

Independent Variable

Variable manipulated by the researcher

Dependent Variable

Variable measured in the experiment

Operational Definition

Exact description of how variables are measured

Sampling

Selecting participants from a population

Representative Sample

Accurately reflects the population

Extraneous Variables

Variables that may affect results

Confounding Variables

Variables that systematically affect the outcome

Random Assignment

Randomly placing participants into groups

Experimental Group

Group receiving the independent variable

Control Group

Group used for comparison

Bias

Unconscious influence on results

Halo Effect

Researcher bias based on overall impression

Single-Blind Study

Controls participant bias

Double-Blind Study

Controls participant and experimenter bias

Placebo Effect

Change caused by belief in treatment

Correlation

Relationship between two variables

Positive Correlation

Variables move in the same direction

Negative Correlation

Variables move in opposite directions

Correlation Coefficient

Measures strength of relationship (-1 to +1)

Case Study

In-depth study of an individual or small group

Meta-Analysis

Combines results of many studies

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural setting

NREM Sleep

Stages 1-3 of sleep

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep

Sleep Cycle

Lasts about 90-100 minutes

Beta Waves

Awake and alert (15-30 Hz)

Alpha Waves

Relaxed and calm (9-14 Hz)

Theta Waves

Light sleep and meditation (4-8 Hz)

Delta Waves

Deep sleep (1-3 Hz)

Stage 1 Sleep

Light sleep, easily awakened